The risk of having alcoholic parents can lead to maladaptive influences on child development in numerous forms. Living in a household with alcoholic parents can lead to a lack of flexibility and arbitrary rules such that children’s response to this confusion are feelings of unresolved or unexpressed fear taking the form of detachment, which can lead to problems such as maladaptive development of relationships. Children may begin to feel as if they are responsible for their parent’s drinking problems resulting in guilt and taking on the role of caretaker for their parents. These children experience extreme and chronic levels of stress and tension which can thus manifest in a multitude of psychological disorders. Even more risks are associated with the emergence of adulthood of these children likely due to both genetic and environmental factors. (Williams, 2019). Children of alcoholics exhibit higher rates of psychopathology compared to their peers and may be at a higher risk for specific disorders such as anxiety or depression. Alcoholic parents could lead to potential substance abuse disorders in their children as well which could lead to further maladaptive development (West & Prinz, 1987). The following two cases study the effects of parental alcoholism on maladaptive development of their biological children in a longitudinal cohort design. Understanding the population at risk and at what times during development causes the most risk can give researchers and clinicians proper interventions that target the specific aspects that are causing the maladaptation.
In the first study, researchers asked the questions is parental alcoholism associated with elevated risk for alcohol and drug diagnosis, anxiety and depression, and is this risk specific to parent alcoholism above and beyond other parental psychopathology? The investigators hypothesized that adolescent alcohol (or drug) use would be predicted by maternal and paternal alcoholism (Chassin et al. 1999). Researchers conducted a longitudinal cohort study with 246 adolescents at Time 1 with at least one biological alcoholic parent who was also a custodial parent (COAs) and 208 demographically matched adolescents with no biological or custodial alcoholic parents (control). The investigators held direct interviews where they confirmed that a biological custodial parent met DSM-III criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence or Family-History Research Diagnostic Criteria on the basis of reports by the other parent (if the alcoholic parent was not interviewed). Data collection was retrieved through computer-assisted interviews for both the adolescent and the parents at the participant’s residence or at the Arizona State University Campus. There were 3 annual assessments of the adolescents and their parents and a long term follow up conducted 5-7 years after the initial assessment. At Time 1, parents lifetime DSM-III diagnosis of alcoholism and affective disorder were taken. At Time 4, they used the DSM-III-R to also test for anxiety disorder. Recency of parental alcoholism was measured at each wave through self-report using nine items from Sher’s (1987) questionnaire. Adolescent symptomology was taken by both the child and the parents using items from the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbrock & Edelbrock 1981) at all waves. Alcohol and drug abuse were self-reported by the children through their frequency of consumption during the past year of alcohol and drugs. Adolescents were also asked to self-report their frequency of heavy drinking which is defined in this study as 5 drinks per occasion. At Time 4, the children now considered young adults, were interviewed with the DSM-III-R for a diagnosis of alcohol abuse and dependence, drug abuse dependence, affective disorder, and anxiety disorder.
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As predicted, researchers found that COA’s were at significantly elevated risk for diagnoses of alcohol abuse or dependence and depressive disorder and were marginally elevated in their risk for anxiety disorder. Moreover, there were significant independent effects of paternal alcoholism, maternal alcoholism, parental antisocial personality, and gender. Young adults with alcoholic mothers, alcoholic fathers, parents who met criteria for antisocial personality disorder, and were males were more likely to develop alcohol abuse or dependence. For prediction of young adult depression and anxiety disorder there were significant main effects of maternal alcoholism and gender, such that individuals with maternal alcoholism and women were at higher risk for depression diagnoses. There was a marginal main effect of paternal depression, a significant effect of age, and an interaction between parent depression and age, such that parental depression was associated with greater risk for offspring depression among younger participants but not among older participants. The current study extended previous research by using a longitudinal study of families actively recruited from the community to test the magnitude and specificity of parent alcoholism effects on young adult development, and to test whether adolescent symptomology and substance use explained these effects. Results showed that parental alcoholism was a moderate risk factor for young adult alcohol and drug abuse/dependence.
Some limitations of this study were that a passive longitudinal family design does not distinguish genetic from environmental effects and cannot address questions of gene-environment interaction or covariation. Alternative designs like adoption studies and twin studies can help with gene-environment interaction and covariation variables. Another limitation is that the onset of diagnosis cannot be precisely dated, so that the effects of the adolescent mediators, such as friendships, genetics, and environment influences on the onset of disorders. By taking more accurate measures frequently one would have increased precision in dating the onset of the disorder which would assist in the development of interventions for adolescent psychopathology and alcohol and drug abuse. The internal validity of the study is good but, because it is not an experimental study, 3rd factors cannot be ruled out. For example, there may have been something to do with social factors, like friend influences that impacted the child’s alcohol and/or substance abuse and psychopathology along with their interactions with their parents and how their home life effects them in conjunction with their friendships and other relationships. The external validity of the study is not as good because it is evident in COA literature that samples that vary in the gender of the alcoholic parent, the density of alcoholism in the family pedigree, and so on may produce different outcomes.
In a second study Sternberg et al. (2018) tested whether the effect of parents with Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) developmentally limited to the period during the child’s emerging adulthood (DLAUD) transmit less risk for alcohol problems and alcohol consumption in offspring compared to children of parents with AUDs spanning across multiple developmental periods (persistent AUD). This study is trying to see if a being exposed to a parent with AUD at a specific time period in a child’s life is at a higher risk for developing drinking problems themselves in the future. The researchers hypothesized that offspring of parents with persistent AUD will have more alcohol consumption and alcohol problems than offspring of parents with DLAUD and no AUD. A further prediction was that offspring of parents with DLAUD would have higher rates of alcohol consumption and alcohol problems than offspring of parents with no AUD.
Participants are from a 3rd generation multigenerational longitudinal study of families with AUD and matched controls at the Arizona State University. Generation 1 (G1) and Generation 2 (G2) were interviewed over 6 waves. At wave 5, Generation 3 (G3) were also interviewed. G3s were then interviewed 3 times after wave 6 (waves 7-9). The children in this study are G3 who reported about their drinking behaviors at least once between 18-25 and their parents, G2. The report of drinking was taken anytime between waves 7-9. The time between each wave was not reported. Biological custodial parents of G3s selected for the current study were coded as either no AUD, DLAUD, or persistent AUD. 178 participants had parents with no history of AUD, 59 had parents with DLAUD, and 124 had parents with persistent AUD. The measures taken about parental diagnosis of DSM-IV alcohol dependence and abuse were assessed with the Diagnostic Interview Schedule if both parents were interviewed or other parent report using Family History- Research Diagnostic Criteria if only one parent was interviewed over the course of wave 4, 5, and 6 of data collection. Results were coded as follows:
- No AUD: neither parent met for criteria at all waves
- DLAUD: one or more parent was diagnosed with alcohol dependence/abuse in the past year when they were between the 18-25, but no parent was diagnosed after those ages.
- Persistent AUD: one or more parent maintained a past year diagnosis through the age of 30 or older.
Positive Parenting was assessed through children’s reports on their mother and father’s parenting in early adolescence, when G3 were still living at home (Wave 6) to prospectively predict later alcohol outcomes. Results showed that the offspring of persistent parental AUD group showed significantly more lifetime alcohol problems than offspring of the parental DLAUD group and the offspring of the no parental AUD group. The offspring of persistent parental AUD group also showed more alcohol consumption and less positive parenting than the offspring of the no parental AUD.
This study adds to the literature by suggesting that heterogeneity in parental AUD diagnosis that considers recovery in emerging adulthood may convey differential risk for children of parents with AUD. Results suggest that simply considering lifetime parental AUD as a dichotomous variable may be imprecise and results may be driven by persistent parental AUDs. A focus on positive parenting practices as a preventative measure for offspring substance use may only be beneficial for parents with persistent AUD, and thus prevention and intervention programs can be tailored to parents with persistent AUD vs. DLAUD.
One limitation of this study was that the investigators did not measure whether or not offspring currently lived with their parents, and this is important because living situation may impact their current alcohol consumption. An easy fix for this would be including a measure for it and any other major outside influences that could easily introduce error. Another limitation of this study is that other types of heterogeneity are important to consider, such as the number of parents with AUD and severity of AUD. By including more measures to get a more accurate view on the influence of parental AUD on child alcoholism one can find proper interventions to target these specific problems. Like the previous the study, this is also a longitudinal cohort study and not an experiment, presenting problems such as ruling out 3rd factors. As stated as one of the limitations, a potential 3rd factor could be that the children’s living situations may influence the outcome of their alcohol use. The external validity is also not good because this sample population comes from another sample recruited for another study and all are concentrated in one geographical area.
These studies suggest that parental alcoholism plays a major role in child development. Study 1 portrays how parental alcoholism has an effect on child psychopathology and alcohol and drug/substance abuse. Study 2 confirms the effects of parental alcoholism on child alcohol abuse and also studies positive parenting as a potential way to ameliorate the effects on the children. This leads one to conclude that there are ways to potentially mitigate the effects parental alcoholism has on child development. Further studies could look at potential interventions and tips for families with alcoholic parents such as outpatient psychotherapy or cognitive behavioral therapy. Another field that can be further researched is how genetically dependent the effects of parental alcoholism is on child psychopathology and alcohol and drug/substance abuse. This can be conducted through twin studies of comparison of the concordance rates of child psychopathology and alcohol and drug/substance abuse between monozygotic and fraternal twins of alcoholic parents. The effects of parental alcoholism play a negative role in child development. Understanding its effects should assist in coming up with proper interventions to potentially help diminish these effects.
References
- Chassin, L., Pitts, S. C., DeLucia, C., & Todd, M. (1999). A longitudinal study of children of alcoholics: Predicting young adult substance use disorders, anxiety, and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(1), 106-119.
- Sternberg, A., Pandika, D., Elam, K. K., & Chassin, L. (2018). The relation of parent alcohol disorder to young adult drinking outcomes mediated by parenting: Effects of developmentally limited versus persistent parent alcohol disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,188, 224-231. doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.03.027
- West, M. O., & Prinz, R. J. (1987). Parental alcoholism and childhood psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 102(2), 204-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.102.2.204
- Williams, S. (n.d.). (2019) What Happens To Children Of Alcoholic Parents? Retrieved from https://www.mentalhelp.net/articles/what-happens-to-children-of-alcoholic-parents/
Chaucer’s The Wife Of Bath’s Tale Character Analysis
Geoffrey Chaucer’s poem, The Canterbury Tales, satirically chronicles thirty pilgrims and their journey to Saint Thomas Becket’s shrine in Canterbury, England. Throughout the poem, Chaucer creatively utilizes the literary technique of a frame narrative, which is essentially stories within a story. The outer frame consists of the pilgrimage to Saint Thomas Becket’s shrine, where each pilgrim, including Chaucer the Pilgrim, exhibits a cross-section of fourteenth century England, omitting only royalty and serfs. Before embarking on their pilgrimage, the pilgrims meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, directly outside London. At the Inn, the Host, Harry Bailly, proposes the idea of a tale-telling contest. Bailly suggests each pilgrim tells two tales in each direction of their trip to prevent boredom. The teller of the most entertaining and moral tale wins a meal courtesy of the “losers” at the journey’s end at the Tabard Inn. Chaucer incorporates the telling of each of the tales by creating an inner frame within the poem. While he intends one hundred twenty tales, Chaucer dies in 1400 A.D., leaving only twenty-four tales, two of which are fragments, remaining. In telling the twenty-four tales within a more sizable tale, Chaucer demonstrates an uncanny ability to match the tale to the teller. One particular tale, the Wife of Bath’s, is perhaps the best example of Chaucer’s cleverness as a writer as he creates a unique character, whose Tale reflects her independent and controlling personality.
The Wife of Bath’s physical description is presented in Chaucer’s General Prologue. Chaucer details her appearance, writing, “Bold was her face, handsome, and red in hue” (15). Chaucer also notes that “She had gap-teeth, set widely [apart]…”, and very large hips. The Wife of Bath’s distinct physical appearance distinguishes her from the appearances of most traditional women of her time. Her defined features make her sexually attractive and “Her sanguine complexion … indicates a good-natured gregariousness” (Rossignol, “The Wife of Bath” par. 3). In the General Prologue, Chaucer also reveals the Wife of Bath is “somewhat deaf”. This impairment does not curb her overly social nature, however, as Chaucer paints her to be an independent, self-assured woman whose boldness is reflected in her Prologue and her Tale.
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The Wife of Bath’s non-physical characteristics are equally introduced in the General Prologue. Chaucer describes the Wife of Bath wearing a finely woven kerchief, soft shoes, a flowing mantle, and a wimple to conceal her aging. In addition, she wears hose of the “finest scarlet red” (15). This bold color is a reflection of her passionate, and even lustful, nature. Michelle M. Sauer says, “The Wife is bold, outspoken, forthright, and, above all, passionate” (par. 15). Chaucer also uses this color to represent her power and confidence, which distinguish her from the other women of her time. The Wife of Bath clearly has an adventurous spirit as she is well-traveled and “skilled in wandering” (Chaucer, GP 15). She travels alone, venturing to places such as Jerusalem and Rome. She is also a skilled cloth maker, she likes to laugh and talk, and she knows “all the remedies for love’s mischances”.
The Wife of Bath’s role in Medieval society is that she represents a woman who is not defined by the social boundaries of her time. Throughout the Middle Ages, most women “were expected to conform to certain standards of behavior, and particularly, when married, to perform certain [household] tasks (Rossignol, “The Wife of Bath” par. 2). The Wife of Bath, however, does not adhere to these standards. Instead of cooking, cleaning, and rearing children, the Wife of Bath focuses on her “prodigious sexual appetite” (par. 2). The Wife of Bath has had five marriages, becoming a bride for the first time at the age of twelve. Chaucer writes, “She’d had five husbands, all at the church door” (GP 15). Despite the number of the marriages, the Wife of Bath has never had children. Children would have interfered with her future relationships and “the fact that the new husband would be expected to support any minor children, would have made her a less attractive commodity in the marriage market” (Rossignol, “The Wife of Bath” par. 2). Further emphasizing the Wife of Bath’s independent spirit is the fact that she travels alone on her pilgrimage. While the other pilgrims are traveling for religious reasons, she is seeking a sixth husband, again demonstrating her nonconformist personality. Despite her controversial nature, however, Chaucer ultimately creates a character who is a “positive representation of independent womanhood”. The Wife of Bath’s positive image is echoed in her Prologue and Tale.
In the beginning of her Prologue, the Wife of Bath establishes her firm belief that life experience outweighs authority. She asserts, “‘If there were no authority on earth / Except experience, mine, for what’s worth,” (Chaucer 258). While many people in the Middle Ages look to religion as the main form of authority, the Wife of Bath defies this ideology. She exposes the inconsistencies and loopholes in the literal text of the Bible, and “She presents her defense somewhat in the form of a scholastic argument that might occur among clerics,” (Ruud par. 2). Using convoluted logic, she justifies her sexuality by arguing that God did not command virginity and define the amount of times a woman could marry. The Wife of Bath believes she has the right to discuss these controversial topics because she has experience in these matters (Bloom par. 2).
Central to the Wife of Bath’s Prologue is her description and justification of her five marriages. The Wife of Bath explains her marriages saying, “Three of them were good and two were bad. / The three that I call “good” were rich and old (Chaucer 263). She considers her first three husbands “good” because she can easily control them and will one day inherit their fortunes (Ruud par. 4). The Wife of Bath’s fourth husband was not as easily controlled, as he was unfaithful and had a mistress. While married to him, she fell in love with Jankyn, who would become her fifth husband, one whom she married for love but who was abusive. In detailing these five marriages to the other travelers in her Prologue, the Wife of Bath asserts herself to be the ultimate authority on marriage.
The overriding theme of the Wife of Bath’s lengthy and complicated Prologue is that happiness in a marriage boils down to control. She achieves control by manipulating her husbands, criticizing their behavior before they can criticize hers, and refusing to have sex with them until they give her ownership of their property. “By these means she suggests that marriage is a battle of the sexes and that one way to win that battle is through deceit and trickery” (Rossignol, “The Wife of Bath’s Prologue” par. 2). Although the Wife of Bath boasts that she married Jankyn for true love, her version of love is a distorted one. Their marriage consisted of abuse and manipulation, and only after the Wife of Bath fakes her death and forces Jankyn to promise to never abuse her, she becomes satisfied. Once again the Wife of Bath acquires the upper-hand and possesses the reins of her marriage (Bloom par. 11).
The Wife of Bath’s long-lasting Prologue sparks several interruptions from various pilgrims. The first pilgrim to interrupt is the Pardoner. The Pardoner claims he is about to marry, however, after listening to the Wife of Bath’s description about the sense of control in marriage, he declares he will halt his marital pursuits. He says, “I was about to take a wife; alas! / Am I to buy it on my flesh so dear? / There’ll be no marrying for me this year!” (Chaucer, WBP 263). The Wife of Bath’s lengthy description of her five husbands later prompts the Friar to declare, “‘This is a long preamble to a tale!’”. The Summoner responds to his comment by cursing him, saying, “‘Well, damn your eyes, and on my behalf’”. The Friar and Summoner continue to argue until the Host quiets them down and informs the Wife of Bath to begin to tell her Tale.
The Wife of Bath’s Tale is classified as a Breton Lais, which is a courtly romance featuring knights, nobility, and supernatural events. These tales are based on the ideals of loyalty, honor, and love, and they often consist of conflicts that arise from sexual relationships between a man and a woman (Rossignol, “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” par 1). Chaucer includes all of these themes in the Wife of Bath’s Tale, which involves a knight convicted of raping a young maiden, hoping to prevent his death sentence if he can answer one question for the Queen: “‘What is the thing that women most desire?’” (282). He finds the answer from a old hag whom he promises to marry, and his life is spared, leaving him alive, but married to a woman he finds unappealing. Finally, the Tale concludes with the knight submitting to his wife in allowing her to choose her future, which ultimately brings both of them satisfaction and happiness.
The Wife of Bath’s Tale revolves around the theme of love and control. Bound by duty and honor, the knight marries the old hag, and then further submits himself to her authority when he allows her to make her own decision regarding whether or not she should remain old and ugly, but loyal, or young and beautiful, but disloyal. The knight declares, “‘I leave the matter to your wise decision. / You make the choice yourself, for the provision’”. In gaining sovereignty and power in the relationship, the old hag transforms into a young, beautiful, and loyal woman. “She gains mastery over a young husband, but also regains her own youth and beauty” (Ruud par. 9). The theme of the tale is thus revealed: love and happiness for all persons in a relationship are achieved through power and control.
Exactly as the Wife of Bath’s Prologue reveals her belief that happiness results from a woman assuming control in a marriage, her Tale exhibits the same belief. Ruud says, “The tale illustrates what…[The Wife of Bath] believes is the chief point of her prologue: that a happy marriage is one in which the woman has “‘sovereignty’”. Clearly, only the Wife of Bath could tell this tale, as it is a direct reflection of the beliefs she holds dearly. The character of the old hag embodies these beliefs, and represents the Wife of Bath herself. When the old hag states, “‘And have I won the mastery?’” (Chaucer 291) she echoes the Wife of Bath’s opinion that domination is key to marital bliss. Both women are clever, a bit conniving, and they get what they want. The old hag’s marriage to the knight, furthermore, mirrors her own marriage to Jankyn, as in both cases, the couples find happiness and true love when the wife assumes control, allowing them all to live “…ever after to the end / In perfect bliss…”.
