How Companies Are Working On Making More Sustainable And Renewable Clothing

Real benefits/downsides to genetic engineering: essay help

A genetically modified organism is an organism that has been genetically altered to present certain desirable traits. The general topic of the overall health and safety of genetically modified organisms is a widely controversial topic. Many people believe that genetic engineering has a negative effect on every aspect of the genetically engineered organisms. This being the environment, economy, health of those consuming the organisms, and those living around GMO farms. Others believe that genetic engineering is overall beneficial for the economy, environment, and those consuming the organisms.

The point of this experiment is to answer those questions related to the real benefits/downsides to genetic engineering. I will be using a few different experiments to answer different questions. I will be answering how genetically modified organisms effect the growth of children. I will also be answering how a GMO diet can affect the mood, behavior, and cognitive sharpness of humans. This will help the population better understand how GMO’s effect the body.

Introduction

A genetically modified organism is an organism whose genome has been engineered in order to favor the expression of desired traits or the production of desired biological products. In genetic engineering, recombinant genetic technologies are used to create organisms whose genomes have been altered at the molecular level, usually by the inclusion of genes from unrelated species of organisms that code for traits that would not be obtained easily through selective breeding (Fridovich-Keil & Diaz 2017). It is most commonly used in livestock production for larger, faster growing animals, crop farming for faster growing and weed and bug resistant crops, and pet breeding for certain desirable traits. In laboratory studies, genetically modified foods have been linked to toxic and allergic reactions, sick, sterile, and dead livestock, and damage to almost every organ studied in lab animals. The effects on humans of consuming these combinations of proteins produced in GMOs are unknown and are currently being studied (Smith 2015). Benefits of GMO’s include semi-weed resistant crops, disease resistant crops, increased production of crops, lower need for pesticides and herbicides, bigger crops and livestock, longer lasting food, and cheaper food caused by cheaper crops and livestock. Environmentally, genetically modified crops are less sensitive to items and particles in soil so they’re easier to grow. Scientists are also working to genetically modify organisms to create edible vaccines and medications. Negative effects of genetically modified organisms can be unhealthy food caused by the lack of nutrients in organic food. Lab animals that have been exposed to genetically modified organisms have shown organ failure, multiple different kinds of diseases, increased aging, and more allergies. Like all natural crops and livestock, genetically modified organisms cross pollinate, which contaminates all close plants and animals. This can cause non-modified organisms to become contaminated and eventually die. Non-modified animals that consume modified plants or other smaller animals can develop diseases or become poisoned by the cross-contamination. In some cases, long standing GMO farms can become resistant to herbicides and pesticides, causing increased use of these chemicals over time. If a GMO production doesn’t go as expected, it can create diseases, toxins, allergens, and carcinogens, increasing a public safety risk. Some people believe that the government isn’t regulating genetic engineering as much as it should, which can lead to uncontrolled production. Big corporations that work with genetic engineering can lie to the public about the safety of their products, which can cause people to turn a blind eye when it comes to the food that they’re eating. The true nature of the effect of GMO’s on the human body has not been discovered. Sources say that they are harmful to the body, others say that they have no effect. This research is being done to help determine the effect genetic engineering has on the population because it’s important for people to know what they’re consuming and how it effects their bodies.

Database related definitions and explanations

1 a)

Database definition

A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated. In one view, databases can be classified according to types of content: bibliographic, full-text, numeric, and images.

In computing, databases are sometimes classified according to their organizational approach. The most prevalent approach is the relational database, a tabular database in which data is defined so that it can be reorganized and accessed in a number of different ways. A distributed database is one that can be dispersed or replicated among different points in a network. An object-oriented programming database is one that is congruent with the data defined in object classes and subclasses.

Computer databases typically contain aggregations of data records or files, such as sales transactions, product catalogs and inventories, and customer profiles. Typically, a database manager provides users the capabilities of controlling read/write access, specifying report generation, and analyzing usage. Databases and database managers are prevalent in large mainframe systems, but are also present in smaller distributed workstation and mid-range systems such as the AS/400 and on personal computers. SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard language for making interactive queries from and updating a database such as IBM’s DB2, Microsoft’s SQL Server, and database products from Oracle, Sybase, and Computer Associates.

b) ANSI-SPARC Architecture

The ANSI-SPARC Architecture, where ANSI-SPARC stands for American National Standards Institute, Standards Planning And Requirements Committee, is an abstract design standard for a Database Management System (DBMS), first proposed in 1975. Most modern commercial DBMS are based on this system. The ANSI-SPARC model however never became a formal standard.

Three-level architecture

The objective of the three-level architecture is to separate the users’ view,

• It allows independent customized user views: Each user should be able to access the same data, but have a different customized view of the data. These should be independent: changes to one view should not affect others.

• It hides the physical storage details from users: Users should not have to deal with physical database storage details.

• The database administrator should be able to change the database storage structures without affecting the users’ views.

• The internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to the physical aspects of the storage: For example, a changeover to a new disk.

Three levels are:

• External level

• Conceptual level

• Internal level

The Three Level Architecture has the aim of enabling users to access the same data but with a personalized view of it. The distancing of the internal level from the external level means that users do not need to know how the data is physically stored in the database. This level separation also allows the Database Administrator (DBA) to change the database storage structures without affecting the users’ views.

• External Level (User Views): A user’s view of the database describes a part of the database that is relevant to a particular user. It excludes irrelevant data as well as data which the user is not authorized to access.

• Conceptual Level: The conceptual level is a way of describing what data is stored within the whole database and how the data is inter-related. The conceptual level does not specify how the data is physically stored.

Some important facts about this level are:

1. DBA works at this level.

2. Describes the structure of all users.

3. Only DBA can define this level.

4. Global view of database.

5. Independent of hardware and software.

• Internal Level: The internal level involves how the database is physically represented on the computer system. It describes how the data is actually stored in the database and on the computer hardware.

Database schemas

There are three different types of schema corresponding to the three levels in the ANSI-SPARC architecture.

• The external schemas describe the different external views of the data and there may be many external schemas for a given database.

• The conceptual schema describes all the data items and relationships between them, together with integrity constraints (later). There is only one conceptual schema per database.

• The internal schema at the lowest level contains definitions of the stored records, the methods of representation, the data fields, and indexes. There is only one internal schema per database.

The overall description of a database is called the database schema.

2 a)

Common SQL Commands

SQL commands are divided into categories, the two main ones being Data Manipulation Language (DML) commands and Data Definition Language (DDL) commands. DML commands deal with data, either retrieving it or modifying it to keep it up-to-date. DDL commands create or change tables and other database objects such as views and indexes.

A list of the more common DML commands follows:

• SELECT — used to query and display data from a database. The SELECT statement specifies which columns to include in the result set. The vast majority of the SQL commands used in applications are SELECT statements.

• INSERT — adds new rows to a table. INSERT is used to populate a newly created table or to add a new row (or rows) to an already-existing table.

• DELETE —  removes a specified row or set of rows from a table

• UPDATE —  changes an existing value in a column or group of columns in a table

The more common DDL commands follow:

• CREATE TABLE — creates a table with the column names the user provides. The user also needs to specify a type for the data in each column. Data types vary from one RDBMS to another, so a user might need to use metadata to establish the data types used by a particular database. (See Metadata for a definition of metadata. CREATE TABLE is normally used less often than the data manipulation commands because a table is created only once, whereas adding or deleting rows or changing individual values generally occurs more frequently.

• DROP TABLE — deletes all rows and removes the table definition from the database. A JDBC API implementation is required to support the DROP TABLE command as specified by SQL92, Transitional Level. However, support for the CASCADE and RESTRICT options of DROP TABLE is optional. In addition, the behavior of DROP TABLE is implementation-defined when there are views or integrity constraints defined that reference the table being dropped.

• Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Definition – What does Data Manipulation Language (DML) mean?

A data manipulation language (DML) is a family of computer languages including commands permitting users to manipulate data in a database. This manipulation involves inserting data into database tables, retrieving existing data, deleting data from existing tables and modifying existing data. DML is mostly incorporated in SQL databases.

Techopedia explains Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML resembles simple English language and enhances efficient user interaction with the system. The functional capability of DML is organized in manipulation commands like SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT INTO and DELETE FROM, as described below:

• SELECT: This command is used to retrieve rows from a table. The syntax is SELECT [column name(s)] from [table name] where [conditions]. SELECT is the most widely used DML command in SQL.

• UPDATE: This command modifies data of one or more records. An update command syntax is UPDATE [table name] SET [column name = value] where [condition].

• INSERT: This command adds one or more records to a database table. The insert command syntax is INSERT INTO [table name] [column(s)] VALUES [value(s)].

• DELETE: This command removes one or more records from a table according to specified conditions. Delete command syntax is DELETE FROM [table name] where [condition].

References

ANSI/X3/SPARC Study Group on Data Base Management Systems: (1975), Interim Report. FDT, ACM SIGMOD bulletin. Volume 7, No. 2  –

Posted by: Margaret Rouse

Contributor(s): Allan Leaked

Matthew Fontaine Maury: college essay help

Introduction

Matthew Fontaine Maury was born on January 14th 1806 outside Fredericksburg Virginia but was raised in Tennessee. He followed in his brothers footsteps and joined the U.S Navy in 1825. He obtained this occupation until 1839 when in this year he was involved in accident that deemed him unable to serve in that squadron. Though his title of naval officer remained where he served in Washington, focusing on the writing of topics that would aid sea goers of that era and off the future. His naval career prospered until 1866 when he began writing textbooks for the subject of Geography in schools. Along with his career in scientific writing he was a professor at the Virginia Military Institute where he practiced physics until his death in 1834. He acquired the occupations of historian, oceanographer, educator, meteorologist , author, and astronomer and due to his extensive range of works contributing to the fields mentioned above, he received nicknames such as Pathfinder of the Seas and Father of Modern Oceanography and Naval Meteorology and Scientist of the Seas (Rudd, 2010). His expertise lied within charting the unexplored parts of the oceans and maritime territory of the open seas and coastlines and shortening navigation routes at sea. He famously charted wind and ocean currents from obtaining data from mariners around the world.

Personal or scientific spaces for geographers are hubs where their scientific knowledge arose and where their theories developed. These spaces drive human thought and are used to create collective and personal identifies (Cloke, Johnston, 2005). Notable spaces for Maury include the steam corvette, the RMS Challenger of 1858 amongst other voyages. Institutional spaces such as the Virginia Military Institute, as well as geographical regions in which he studied and provided great understanding off (Wexler, Rubin, Caskey 2013).

Placing Matthew Fontaine Maury: The Beginning of His Scientific Career

Maury was a significant figure in the 19th century in the subjects of oceanography and meteorology. With having a scientific background in the writing of physical geography textbooks and the navigation of routes at sea, he made noteworthy contributions to exploring expeditions carried out by the U.S Navy. His naval role made him favourable for such voyages. Although a prominent figure in oceanography he was recruited as an astronomer and hydrographer for a navy exploring expedition in 1837 by Commodore Catesby Jones. The reason for this recruitment was because he had successfully begun his scientific career, Maury had published two articles and a navigation textbook. At the time of when he was appointed for this role he was only a junior lieutenant but many knew of his capabilities. With this under his belt he was selected as head of the National Observatory of Virginia and he held this post for  17 years. Although an appreciated scientist of this era he was criticised in this role and tension arose between him and other scientists in this field for resources. This disapproval was justified because although Maury ran one of the most prestigious observatories in the world, during his time here he published less than 20 papers (Scribner, 2008). Maury regarded physical geography as a better discipline than astronomy and it was his love for the ocean that encouraged him to pursue sea exploration. In a published quote he says “Astronomy ignores the existence of man; physical  geography confesses that existence is based on the Biblical doctrine ‘ that the earth was made for man.” (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888) In 1842 he was appointed as superintendant of the Navy’s Depot of Charts and Instruments and the US Naval Observatory in Washington (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2010). It was Maurys international recognition as well as his scholarly reputation that made him favourable for this role according to the article Matthew Fontaine Maury by Trevor Major 2010. It has been published in literature that Maurys first five pieces of writing on naval reform and other subjects of natural interest also made him admirable for this position. These papers were regarded as remarkable and were universally acknowledged. In a quote by Senator Bell in 1842 he states that ” No man could have been found in the country better fitted  for this difficult duty.” (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888) It was in this depot that he made notable contributions to the navy and the world through the study of navigation charts. This space allowed him to create the first systematic study of the oceans currents and winds from the collection of data retrieved by sailors from around the world upon request (Ocean Motion no date). This was considered the greatest task of his career as he achieved worldwide credit for his Wind and Ocean Charts of 1847. His accomplishment of establishing safe and quicker sailing routes around the globe earned him one of his monikers ‘Pathfinder of the Seas’ (Major 2010). The spaces of vessels allowed Maury to make significant contributions to science. He was first assigned as a midshipman aboard the frigate USS Brandywine in 1825. It was here that he began to study of the sea and navigation (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888).

The Challenger and Other Notable Voyages

After the USS Brandywine Maury undertook many other voyages to continue his purpose of sea exploration and navigation. In 1826 aboard the USS Vincennes, Maurys scientific expertise were recognised and he became a favourite with the Captain. The space in which Maury occupied on this ship was advantageous for him to development his scientific knowledge. He made significant progress here and had created Lunar Tables which were published soon after (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). The next voyage he embarked on was to the Pacific aboard the Sloop-of-war Falmouth. Unlike the USS Brandywine Maury had his own cabin where he could conduct his own scientific enquiry. The voyage of Falmouth was of particular significance in Maurys scientific career as it was on this voyage he came up with the idea of his very famous Wind and Current Charts. His scientific research and accomplishments were kick started upon leaving New York to head to Cape Horn, where he studied the ‘low barometer’ phenomenon. His career of writing scientific papers had begun after his first paper was published on this particular topic (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). The contributions he had made so far to the field of oceanography particularly in the subject of sea navigation were even more exceptional due to his rank in the navy. ‘ It was considered a daring step on the part of an officer of a rank no higher than that of a midshipman to publish a work on navigation; but the book, like its author had made its way in spite of all obstacles'(Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888). This accomplishment was noticed by the highest nautical authorities in England and his work became the textbook of the United States Navy. After disembarking from the Falmouth Maury had plans to expand his scientific career. In a letter to his brother  that was written in 1835, Maury was very aware of his potential to make significant contributions to oceanography. He states ‘You must bear in mind that this is the first nautical work of science that has ever come from the pen of a naval officer’ (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). After the Falmouth another significant voyage that contributed to Maurys work was the USS Dolphin that sailed until 1834 in which Maury was the first lieutenant on. Commanded by Maury, this voyage was for a scientific purpose to measure ocean depth. As early as 1847 Maury was contributing to oceanography with the development of his Wind and Ocean charts beginning with a strip of water from Newfoundland to Ireland. Maury also carried out these studies for navigational and commercial benefits by studying the seafloor underneath major shipping routes. Maury also had a significant role in the North Pacific Exploring Expedition that sailed the North Pacific Ocean, China seas and parts of the Behring Straits from 1853 to 1856. Its purpose was not only naval or commercial but also scientific in terms of claiming parts of the ocean.  Maurys expertise in the field of oceanography were recognised and he was selected to promote the hydrographical goals of the expedition. He also played a key role in collecting ocean floor deposits to fulfil the aim of the deep sea investigation both physical and biological (Rozwadowski 2005).

Maurys most notable voyage was the HMS Challenger that sailed from 1872-1876 across the southern hemisphere. It was the first voyage to be funded for a specific scientific purpose. This purpose was to examine the deep seabed and ‘answer comprehensive questions about the ocean environment’ (Aquarium, no date) It was Maurys contributions to the data collection of ocean currents and meteorological readings that helped develop the science of oceanography (Ocean Motion no date).  The steam corvette of the HMS Challenger was a scientific space in which Maury could enhance his scientific knowledge and contribute further to the field of oceanography. It was an intellectual and social space for scientific enquiry and a hybrid space containing a mobile laboratory and field laboratory in which Maury could carry out his work. Although Maury was a recognised man of science, on the HMS Challenger he was not one of the six scientists onboard but one of the 20 naval officers (Finnegan 2015).

In The Ship as Laboratory: Making Space for Field Science at Sea by Antony Adler 2013 states it was the spaces of the HMS Challenger that launched an environment for Maury that gave ‘legitimacy to the science of oceanography’  Adler also published a quote by Maury regarding the importance of vessel spaces and his Wind and Ocean Observation Charts. ‘ Every ship that navigates the high seas, with these charts and blank logs on board, may henceforth be regarded as a floating observatory, a temple of science’

His Notable Geographical works and Further Scientific Contributions

Maury has published a range of literature in the fields of physical geography, oceanography and meteorology.  He was able to do so because of the data he had collected in his scientific spaces of the voyages, the national observatory as well as data collected from mariners around the world.  Among Maurys work were charts that benefited those out at sea. One of the first charts to be published was his Whaling Charts in 1846. These contained information on the whereabouts of sperm whales. In literature compiled by his daughter the value of such charts were noted. They showed mariners shorter routes across the sea, decreased danger while sailing by showing prevailing winds and ocean currents and linked many parts of the world. In a letter by the Secretary of the Navy states stated that the information within the charts is of great value that has added honour to this country, an opinion felt throughout the Government of this time (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888). To get an extent of the contributions of these charts made ‘350 whaling vessels alone in New Bedford benefited from these charts’ (Jahns, 1961). In 1847 Maury published his Wind and Current Charts. The charts did not only add significance to the science of oceanography but they also were important to empirical science. This was the idea of claiming the ocean through science which Maury did successfully (Scribner, 2008). Maury expanded the significance of these charts by accompanying them with an enlarged edition of Sailing Directions. His most notable piece of literature The Physical Geography of the sea was published in 1855. It was considered the first modern textbook of oceanography and earned Maury the title of Father of Oceanography (Major, 2010). Within this book was the first bathymetric chart ever published. It was off great significance because it determined  the location for the transatlantic cable between Ireland and Newfoundland. On this operation Maury imputed a lot of work and was described as the brains behind it (Cohen, 2005). An example of Maurys input into this project was his depiction of the plateau under the see where the cable would lie. It became the most famous and widely produced image on this subject. Maurys work in the attempt to lay the cable in 1857 and 1858 was greatly appreciated however the project received some criticism and failed the following month. Maurys work on the cable was therefore not acknowledged in a banquet of 1866. Among other reasons he wasn’t acknowledged at this time was because shareholders, journals and newspapers no longer devoted time on the research of the seafloor or promoted the idea of the cable (Rozwadowski 2005). This textbook was also subjected to criticism. It was described as being written to hastily and having a lot of errors (Jahns, 1961). By the eighth edition there was still no evidence of appreciable modifications. Maury had a habit off ignoring criticism and constantly defended his theories even if they weren’t accepted. Sir Henry Holland criticised this book stating that ‘Maury theorises to largely and hazardously’ Maurys confusing style of writing is not structured enough for the reader with facts not separated from theories and the known not separated from the unknown (Fontaine Maury, 1861). Despite the criticism, Maurys work on sea observation was so greatly appreciated by all nations that it was suggested to expand his meteorological work inland. In 1861 he published his book Physical Geography of the Sea and it’s Meteorology. This book contributed to the field of meteorology as well as to agriculture and was commended in comments by Humboldt and Quetelet in the Edinburgh review. They both stated;  “One of the most charming and instructive books in the English language,” (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888). Back in 1853 Maurys vast scientific knowledge inspired the established of the International Maritime Meteorological Conference in Brussels in which he successfully brought together 10 major maritime powers (Munday, 1983). Within just a few years the aim of the conference was met and Maury was achieving international cooperation of the collection of oceanographic observations (Williams, 1983). With all this under his belt it was ‘Maury who created the science of physical geography’ (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888).

Maurys work can be addressed in a theoretical and historical context as well as personal and institutional.  In terms of personal and historical, there is a religious undertone to his theories. There is a question of whether Maury used the Bible as a guide to exploring the oceans ever since his daughter read to him Pslam 8:8. It goes as follows; “whatsoever walkth path of the sea” to which Maury replied “the paths of the sea, if God says path of the sea, they are there and I will find them’  The idea of Maury using the Bible amongst his research was reinforced by a paper published in 1929 by the US Naval Institute revealing that biblical quotes were carved into monuments of Maury in Virginia (Rudd, 2010). Maury has quoted the use of The Bible in scientific discovery and how the two are linked. In the following quote he reinstates this. “The Bible is true and science is true. The agents in the physical economy of our planet are ministers of Him who made both it and the Bible.” (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). One of Maurys theories that was looked at before him was in relation to the Gulf Stream.  Benjamin Franklin was the first to show interest in the Gulf Stream with regards to ship navigation and published the first chart of it in 1769. The purpose of it was to shorten crossings from England to Rhode island, similar aims of Maury to shorten the travel time of major shipping routes (Rudd, 2010). Maury originally thought the currents of the Gulf Stream flowed eastward and his theory of where it originated by thermohaline circulation was rejected by his opponent Sir John Herschel. Hershel’s theory that the current flows from the east by westerly trade winds is widely accepted (Fontaine Maury 1861). When Maury is explaining his ideas to all audiences he uses the analogy of astronomy. In the reference to the sea he says the depths equally deserve the reflection and scrutiny of the heavens and that if humans could reach and research the sky so could they with the sea bed. Other scientists of this time that used this analogy were William B. Carpenter who used eclipse expeditions to get the government onboard with scientific voyages (Rozwadowski 2005). Before Maury began ocean exploration there was a historical foundation of knowledge provided by sea goers before his time. It was in the 1700’s that explorers wanted faster routes for trade and  it was also in this era that the Centre for the Learning of Marine Sciences was established by Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (Dive Discover, 2005). In terms of Maurys work in an institutional context; as mentioned the National Observatory influenced his discoveries greatly as it was here he found shipping logs that enabled him to create his Wind and Current Charts (Scribner, 2008). Maurys theories on the movement of water and wind influenced others particularly William Ferrel, who was forced to revise his own theories because of widespread popularity of Maurys (Scribner, 2008) Maury worked in a time just after the Age of Discovery. This was a period of world exploration by carrying out expeditions across the sea. Geography during the 19th Century was an established disciple and the subjects it included were studied by Alexander Von Humboldt at this time. In his book Cosmos: a sketch of a physical description of the Universe 1865 he regarded geography as being systematic and it was him who developed theories of physical geography. Carl Ritter was influenced by Humboldt and further developed geography from systematic to regional and that it has the right to be considered a science (Rana, 2008). Ritter and Humboldt were the founders of modern geography and established a bed of geographical thought in which people like Maury could further develop.

Conclusion and Further Recognition for His Work

It is evident that Maury made significant contributions to the field of oceanography gaining the titles of Father of Oceanography and Pathfinder of the Seas. His contributions were less significant to astronomy but never the less his scientific and naval contributions were acknowledged. These contributions have been remembered in many ways from the naming of buildings and ships after him, and the numerous statues of him. Examples of these include the Matthew Fontaine Maury Monument in Richmond Virginia and Maury Hall as part of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Maury also obtained 13 silver medals of Pope Pius IX for his weather reporting system and the Monetary Award in 1866 for his contributions to navigation at sea (Cohen, 2005). Maury received recognition from the likes of Humboldt for his achievements both scientific and empirical. His work on physical geography was so significant that it was printed numerous times and translated into 6 languages of Europe. Maurys legacy and contributions live on through the American Association for the Advancement of Science in which he helped form by attending the first meeting in 1848, where he promoted his successful Wind and Current charts (Scribner 2008). He was an exceptional oceanographer who made vast contributions to geographical thought from the spaces of ships, observatories and the Naval Institute of Virginia.

Syntagmatic relationships

A syntagm is an orderly combination of interacting signifiers which forms a meaningful whole within a text – sometimes, following Saussure, called a ‘chain’.   Syntagmatic relationships are often governed by strict rules, such as spelling and grammar. They can also have less clear relationships, such as those of fashion and social meaning.  A road sign is a syntagm, a combination of the chosen shape with the chosen symbol.

Paradigms is simply a belief system (or theory) that guides the way we do things, or more formally establishes a set of practices and this can range from thought patterns to action.  Paradigms and syntagms are fundamental to the way that any system of signs is organized. In written language, the letters of the alphabet are the basic vertical paradigms.  The combination of these words may be termed as syntagms. These words can be formed into syntagms called phrases or sentences, i.e., according to the rules of grammar.  Syntagms-like sentences-exist in time: we can consider them a chain. Be that as it may, syntagms of visual signs can exist at the same time in space. In this manner, a sign of two kids leaving school, in black uniform, can be syntagmatically joined with a red triangle or a street sign to mean: SCHOOL: BEWARE OF CHILDREN.

The framework constitutes the second pivot of the language. Saussure has seen it fit as a fiddle of a field of affiliated field; some dictated by a proclivity of sound (training, fullness) some by attraction in importance (instruction, background).

Denotation and Connotation

Connotation and Denotation are two principal methods of describing the meanings of words.  Denotation tends to be described as the definitional, ‘literal’, obvious or ‘commonsense’ meaning of a sign.  While connotation, within society and culture, refers to various meanings, not just one; in other words, this is where an object, animal, person might be related to the word- i.e. ‘signified’ and thus, a range of implied and associated meanings and ideas are formed.  In this example of a familiar Malboro ad the image of the cowboy denotes “cowboy,” just as the image of the hat denotes “hat,” or the image of the horse denotes “horse”; the entire image, however, is clearly composed in order to evoke readily and strongly felt connotations of American masculinity, proud individualism, a confident and potent mastery of nature, etc.—connotations which these ads have long been associating (in the hearts and minds of the audience) with the Malboro brand of cigarettes.

22 METHODS OF SEMIOLOGY

Method of semiology involves the following:

1. commutation test

2. Paradigmatic Analysis

3. Syntagmatic Analysis

Commutation Test

The commutation test is an operation for the establishment of a relation between signifier and signified.  This test is a metalingual subjective system for analyzing textual or other material. It has evolved from a limited method for investigating the structure of individual signs (per Roman Jakobson) and its primary uses are to:

 identify distinctive signifiers,

 define their significance, and

 divide material into paradigmatic classes and identify the codes to which the signifiers belong (Roland Barthes).

The beginning notion is that the communication to be examined symbolizes both a psychological use of the sign framework and an expression that alludes to the qualities of the addresser. The reason for the test is along these lines to enlighten the addresser’s aim in utilizing the code as a part of this specific way. It works through a procedure of substitution, surveying the degree to which an adjustment in the signifier prompts an adjustment in the signified. The initial step, subsequently, is to prohibit one signifier from the material to be examined. This is a test of redundancy: to distinguish what meaning is lost (if any) by discarding that sign. It will be moderately uncommon to observe that one sign is totally pointless, yet more regular to find that the involvement of the one sign to the entire significance is generally frail. The shortcoming or quality of its involvement can be adjusted all the more precisely by creating option (synonymous and antonymous) signs in the setting. This will empower the analyst to make a judgment on the peculiarity of the specific signifier picked by the author and of its quality to the importance, i.e. as pretty much vital for keeping up the importance and/or standard structure in diverse events. By changing the collocation between two of the current signifiers, thus changing their unique relationship, the relative significance of every signifier can be considered. Further, by likewise putting the first sign into diverse settings, it can be seen whether the sign turns out to be pretty much unmistakable.

Paradigmatic Analysis

Paradigmatic analysis is the analysis of paradigms embedded in the text rather than of the surface structure (syntax) of the text which is termed syntagmatic analysis.  This aspect of structural analysis involves a consideration of the positive or negative connotations of each signifier (revealed through the use of one signifier rather than another), and the existence of `underlying’ thematic paradigms.  Paradigmatic analysis often uses commutation tests, i.e. analysis by substituting words of the same type or class to calibrate shifts in connotation.  The sign is the major building block out of which all meaning is built and transmitted. Meaning is encrypted by the sender of the message and deciphered by the recipient reviewing past experience and putting the message in its proper social connection. Individual signs can be gathered together to create more difficult signs, create words, collection of words form sentences, sentences expresses stories, and so on. The developed signs are termed syntagms and every collection may be a standard. Along these lines, in the English language, the letter set is the standard from which the syntagms of English words are shaped. The group of English words gathered together in a lexicon turn into the model from which sentences are created, and so on. Thus, paradigmatic examination is a system for identifying so as to investigate a syntagm its fundamental paradigm reviewing the individual paradigmatic components, and afterward recreating the procedure by which the syntagm takes on meaning.

Syntagmatic Analysis

The syntagmatic analysis of a text (whether it is verbal or non-verbal) involves studying its structure and the relationships between its parts.  It gives on overview of a media text as a narrative sequence or a sequence of signs.  In the case of television or advertisements made for television or films, the syntagmatic analysis would involve the analysis of every shot, scene or sequence and how these relate to each other  Of particular use in semiotic study, a syntagm is a chain which leads, through syntagmatic analysis, to understanding of how a sequence of events forms a narrative.

Roland Barthes could utilize metaphor in different parts of garments keeping in mind the end goal to show how the syntagm/paradigm relationship were in compatibility with the creation and changing of meaning. Developing this type of clarification by Barthes, both David Lodge (author) and Susan Spiggle have additionally built up the metaphor, utilizing particular clothing materials. Shirt, shorts and shoes for instance, are openly exchangable along the plane of tops, bottoms and footwear, the paradigmatic plane, accepting they take after the principles of wearable things, the syntagmatic plane. While you can change the shoes for high heels, it would be breaking the principles to wear them as a top. Swinging to the syntactically right sentence, it keeps the content from having meaning like it was written by Yoda.

How to adapt communication with children and young people

Task 5 Explain how to adapt communication with children and young people for

A) The age of the child or young person

B) The context of the communication

C) Communication differences

A) The youngest child I work with is  4 years old so the way I communicate with then is different  to when I talk to a 10 year old  e.g. younger children  will have a shorter attention span  and will want to do different things at one where as a older child may spend a long time on one project.

The younger children who are beginning school may feel unsure about things and will be unsettled, and will want lots of support and encouragement from adults around them. We can build a relationship with them by encouraging them to make friends with the other children in the setting; we might pair a younger child with an older child therefore making the older child feel helpful.

When workings with young children always make sure you set a good example by speaking to them in a way they understand, making sure you are at their eye level, and having good body language.

With older children make sure they are getting prise , and take a interest in the things they are doing, you may want to give them little jobs so they feel independent e.g. setting up a activity

Always make a child feel includes in all activities even if you have to change it to meet there needs.

B)  The context of the communication

Needs to be changes if needed to meet the children needs. E.g. at playtime outside you might needs to change the tone of your voice e.g.  Softer and welcoming if playing a game, but louder and forceful if you can see they are doing something wrong / that might hurt them

When in the classroom and a child is doing there written work it is important not to distract them with questions, we have to be professional and use or teacher voice and body language.

C) Communication differences

When working with a child or young people that have got these needs we must remember they have different needs

For some people, English may not be their first language; this could mean that they only have a basic grasp on the English language making any types of communications harder.

You can help them by learning words from their language or you can use pictures or sign language helping them become more relaxed.

.

Always give the child a chance to speak and don’t answer for them or put them under any pressure,

Always give the child lots of praise and encouragement.

Task 6 Explain the main differences between communicating with adults and communication with children and young people

Children

When communicating with child

Make sure you give the children your fall attention and use good eye contact and use good facade expectations e.g. smiling and also make sure that you are on their level e.g. getting down onto the floor to play with them.

Show that you are interested in the things they are doing e.g. by asking questions and giving them time to answer, and don’t put world into their mouth or try and answer for them

You will need to speak clearly to them especially a younger child, and used closed and open questions, or use sign language and pictures if a child has a disability.

All ways give the child lots of praise and encouragement.

Adults

when communicating with adult you should always respect their views and options and always listen to what they are telling you as it might be something important you need to know about the child.

You would work together to help the child with their learning and behaviour e.g. don’t do the opposite of with the parent wants, as that would give the child different messages.

We also commutate with parents by we do this by

Welcome parent to join and participate in the setting, e.g. during sports day / parents evening

We ask the parents for with ideas, comments and suggestions for the best outcome in the setting,

Showing them the observation and assessessment we have made on their child and answering any questions they have.

All of us must work together to help provide the best outcome for the children

It is better to commutate face to face because if you do it over the phone for example if you phone a parent to talk about their child devolvement and  you cannot see their body language you don’t know how they are taking the news you can only guess by the tone of voice they are using.

Development of languages: the Dutch and English language: writing essay help

We decided to write about the development of languages, specifically the Dutch and English language. First we just wanted to do the English language, but we have not done a bilingual course for nothing. We are bilingual and so is our report.

Both of us like language and reading so we really liked the idea of doing something with language in our report. After discussions with our supervisor and thinking about possible subjects about language ourselves we went with the development of language. It was Mrs. Lammerts who came up with the idea in one of our discussions and we liked it so much we decided to work it out.

The main question we came up with is “What are the main differences between the development of the English language and the Dutch language?”. To get to the answer we are going to cover the following things in this report: “What is language?”, the development of the English language, the development of the Dutch language and the differences between their developments.

We did not want our research to exist only out of researching the development, but also of something else. Which is why we decided to make a questionnaire. Since we are TTO students ourselves, we were really interested if there was a difference between TTO students and regular students when it came to recognising an old Dutch and an old English text. We think the TTO students will recognise the old English text more easily than the regular students. We made a questionnaire with one old Dutch text, one old English text, one recent Dutch text and one recent English text. We decided we wanted the questionnaire to be filled out by the fourth class, because they know enough to understand a lot of English, but do not know as much as the higher classes.

Before all of this there will be first be a summary to give an expression about the outcome of our research.

We have a good friendship which made it nicer to work on this report. We always had fun working together and trying to make something of our work. Next to working we also laughed a lot and that’s an important part of it all too, the relationship between the writers of the report.

Language is a phenomenon only humans possess and use a device for communication. It dates back thousands and thousands of years ago, but there’s only one piece of evidence that language existed before it was written down 5,300 years ago. Nowadays almost all languages are being written down next to being spoken. Today, there are 6,900 languages which are divided into one 90 language families which include Germanic and Roman. All languages are believed to have originated from one single languages called the proto-language.

Old English has endured many changes because of all the different invasion it had to face, but eventually a Standard Written English was created. However, in the Middle English period this Standard Written English was disestablished. During this period people mostly wrote without any structure in their written work. But at the end of this period a new Written Standard was on the rise, the Modern Standard English. Many centuries later, due to technology and social media, a separate language seems to be emerging. A language consisting of abbreviations and emoji’s.

As expected there was a lot less information on the development of the Dutch language than of the English language, because Dutch is not a world language. Dutch people would probably be able to find some similarities in all of the texts used as long as they know what they are reading is Dutch. You can see a clear development going from Old Dutch to Middle Dutch to New Dutch. With every few hundred years it starts to look more and more like the Dutch we know nowadays.

People use a lot of abbreviations in social media nowadays, they make abbreviations out of almost everything. Dutch people use a lot of English abbreviations next to the Dutch abbreviations they use.

The results of questionnaire were not as expected. A lot of results are the other way around: more regular students had the right answer and not the TTO students. This might be because the TTO students are so focused on recent English that they cannot see modifications of words they know from recent English.

We can conclude that English has had more development than Dutch.

Gloria Anzaldua’s essay, From Borderlands/ La Frontera

Language is a tool that should be used collectively to facilitate communication. What it has evolved into today, however, is a tool that does indeed facilitate communication, but not all people understand it, which has consequently created deep divisions among the world. To put it another way, language now acts as somewhat of a barrier instead of a bridge.  What people do not realize is how similar languages actually are, and refuse to overcome their mental set to try and understand what other people are trying to say. There then comes the more extreme case of trying to build a bridge by imposing the universally acknowledged language of English on people who do not speak it. While this does not imply that it is a negative process, as it aids in understanding other people, it does not destroy the “language barrier”- it merely forces people to cross the bridge. What we will explore during the course of this essay, is how different people cope with their exposure to the English language, and how it affects their ability to communicate using the languages they were born speaking.

People tend to react with apprehension when they encounter languages that are different from what they know. I observed an instance of this in myself, while first reading through Gloria Anzaldua’s essay, “From Borderlands/ La Frontera”. I found myself overcome by frustration due to my inability to understand what she was saying when she wrote in Spanish. I was therefore doing exactly what I said most people do- I was unwilling to go beyond my mental set to try and comprehend her words. Using myself as an example shows how common it actually is for people to express distrust upon seeing another language being incomprehensively intertwined with English. I distinctly being simultaneously red-faced in shame, while also gaping in awe, when I read the lines “Until I am free to write bilingually and to switch codes without always having to translate, while I still have to speak English or Spanish when I would rather speak Spanglish…” (Ahmad 445). This completely opened my eyes, and changed my outlook on the way I perceive language. While I was certainly frustrated while reading through her essay, trying to decipher some form of meaning from it, I failed to acknowledge that the meaning was, in fact, relatively clear, even without me having to translate the words from Spanish. This serves as a miniscule sliver of what is going on in the world around us, where people express undue frustration regarding language. Furthermore, an important distinction needs to be made between people who actually cannot understand the language, and people who are averse to the idea of trying to understand.

This phenomenon can, in fact, be observed on an even smaller scale, even when people communicate using the same language, let alone two different ones. We live in a world where, on one hand, the people who do not speak the same language are divided by a seemingly impenetrable “language barrier”, whereas on the other hand, people do have a language which they can all use to communicate- English. This being said, however, English is a language that has certain norms which have been set in stone by the people who originally spoke it. This means that the English spoken in different parts of the world can clearly be distinguished from one another, be it based on the speaker’s accent, or an author’s writing. Consequently, some have evolved to be viewed negatively, and others positively; Gabriel Okara, who is an author born in Nigeria, argues that the way he uses English is vastly different from what constitutes the norms of its usage. However, he argues that this is the only way he can produce his subjective experiences of life on paper. For example, the literal translation of a word as simple as goodbye in English, translates to “may we live to see ourselves tomorrow” (Okara 477). Phrases like this serve as a portal that takes us to the times wherein this language was formed, which is during a time of wars, where people lived with a constant fear of death. Therefore, to use “goodbye” instead would be to express English thoughts, and not African ones (Okara 478), thereby pulling a curtain over the true nature of Okara’s language and blinding the readers from perceiving his writing the way he envisioned it in his mind. To put it into perspective, authors such as Chinua Achebe and Gabriel Okara all have one thing in common- they write in English. Yes, that is blatantly obvious, but consider the deeper meaning: why is their writing shunned, if it is, after all, being written in English? Okara answers this question by proceeding to point out the unfortunate truth- to use a literal translation is unfortunately viewed as a defilement of English language (Okara 478). What people need to realize is that while it is true that their literature may be different from what primary English speakers are used to, it is this very fact that makes their literature contain so much more depth and meaning.

So far, we have looked at incidents that occurred many years ago, which brings about the question- how has this perception of language changed over the years? In an attempt to find an answer, my mind involuntarily wanders back to my opening statement, which says that not all people understand every single language. However, why this incomprehension should cause frustration is beyond me. I am not saying that all people should have every language implanted in their brains upon birth, so that everyone understands each other. What I am saying, however, is that people should try; languages are more similar to each other than one may realize. We still see the words “language barrier” being used in everyday conversation. Why is linguistic diversity still being viewed so negatively? The first step to overcome this problem is to obliterate the negative connotations of the phrase “language barrier”. People are born speaking the languages of their ancestors, which they learn almost involuntarily. I was trilingual when I was two years old, and fluently babbled in all the three languages we spoke at home. At the age of twelve, I was still trilingual, but that was because we had to compulsorily learn another language at school. You may have done the math to figure out that one language had completely disappeared. I distinctly remember speaking my first word in Tamil. Now it is a language I can barely form a sentence in, without exhibiting symptoms similar to that of Werneckie’s aphasia. Is my brain’s left hemisphere damaged? No. Why, then, can’t I speak my mother tongue, you ask? Simply because I was taught to never utter a word in anything other than English in school. The only reason I retained the other language that I learnt during childhood because was I frequently used it to converse with my housemaid.

We still see the words “language barrier” being used in everyday conversation. Why is linguistic diversity still being viewed so negatively? The first step to overcome this problem is to obliterate the negative connotations of the phrase “language barrier”. Therefore, to conclude, I would like to find an answer to these questions:  Why are these tongues still considered uncivilized? Why are children being punished when they accidentally utter a word of their mother tongue while answering a question their teacher asks? Above all, why are people who fight the urge to speak what comes naturally, and translate it into a foreign tongue, being reprimanded for trying to reach a broader audience? If this problem were not present today, I would just as freely be able to switch between languages as Gloria Anzaldua does in her essay, and neither of us would face any form of negativity- I wouldn’t get slaps on my wrists, and Anzaldua wouldn’t have to deal with the frustrations of her readers not being able to understand her work. It would thus be a world where people acknowledged differences in language, but learnt to live in harmony with it.

Did the way that the British empire forced people to speak English have consequences and how did the countries accept the new language?: essay help online

English is one of the worlds most recognized and dominant languages and one of the most widely spoken languages by foreigners. English is taught in school in almost every country of the world and is therefore very commonly spoken and often taken for granted. What we seem to forget is how English has become such a dominant language. Through the English colonization in the time of the great British empire a lot of people were taught English whether they wanted to or not.  This is why English is among the most common and widely spoken languages today.

But the question is; Did the way that the British empire forced people to speak English have consequences and how did the countries accept the new language?

That is what the welsh journalist Tom Law describes in his article “Cachau Bant: Mind Your Language” from December 2013. He reflects on the results of the way that the Welshman were forced to replace their native language with English.

In this analytical essay I will analyze and comment on Tom Law’s article where part of the focus will be on the tone and style, and on how Tom Law views the connection between language and national identity.

Tom Law is angry about the 150-year crushing of his native Welsh language, where he asks; ‘How would you feel if you were made to speak German?’. The Englishmen came and made English the first priority and their native language was made second priority. They took over the Welsh school system and converted it to traditional English.

But what he is most angry about is the fact that no one seems to care about the Welsh people. He is angry about how English speakers react to the Welsh people being afraid of loosing their mother tongue.

He uses the European union as a scary story and the fact that Brussels wants to absorb Britain into a Euro-state to compare with the Welsh story. According to Tom Law that was exactly what England did to Wales end their native language. He explains it with “The Welsh language declining so rapidly because of the Englishmen placing a pillow over its face and smothering it.” Then he tries to put it into perspective for the English people and makes them imagine a world with German as the dominant language. He asks the question “How would you feel if you were made to speak German?’” and then he describes a world were German will take over the English language and culture precisely as England did to wales. He describes this with the ironic sentence “You don’t care about some bloke in Altrincham moaning about the German signs on his local fish and chip shop.” also referring to what he said earlier about that no one cared about the Welsh people.

With the attempt to wipe out the Welsh language, consequences have followed. With English as the new big and fast-growing language people are forced to take a choice. Some have chosen to welcome this new language and culture while others have chosen to stick with their mother tongue and original identity. This starts to split up the society and divides it along two different language lines. “It’s a cultural civil war which has brought out the worst aspects of both sides. A nation which once fought for its rights, which fought against inequality and injustice has been effectively turned in on itself.”

The development has left the non-Welsh speakers like outsiders in their own country, with no chance of accessing the old culture and traditions and with reduced chances of finding jobs. The Welsh Speakers has to deal with being battered from all sides, endlessly being under attack and having to justify the use of their own language – mostly to fellow Welsh people who have been brought up with English as their mother tongue.

The tone of the text is informal and where Tom Laws own opinions are shown significantly. It is also clear to the reader that Tom Law between the lines is very angry at the Englishmen for exterminating the Welsh language. The fact that he writes in this informal tone makes it easier for the reader to identify with the text and the different points of view. He uses many typical British terms like “this all sounds absolutely nuts”, “watched English telly”, “but it’s bullocks”. Tom Law also uses a lot of rhetorical questions through out the text which is a good way as an author to come out with your points of view. He also repeats words, sentences and selected terms. That is not something you necessarily notice as you read the text but it affects your subconsciousness and makes you more focused on his belief. He also uses symbolism in his essay. I have already quoted one of them where he said; “The Welsh language has declined so rapidly because the English placed a pillow over its face and smothered it.” The last part of the sentence with the pillow being smothered over the face of the Welsh people is a symbol of the Welsh Language being wiped out.

THE SOUND SYSTEM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE: essay help

LANGUAGE:

Language is defined as:

The way of communication and source of communication. Language is the main path to meet with each other.

OR

Language is a system of usual and traditional speech, speak and writing. All nations have their own languages to which they communicate each other.

PHONOLOGY:

Phonology is the branch of linguistics which concerned with the study of sound system of languages, it is the physiology and anatomy of English language. It has concerned with the organs of speech and it use in our daily life whenever using English language.

SOUND SYSTEM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

A set of material for the replication, reproduction and amplification of sound.

The pattern and design of the English sound system make the proper sense in the sentence. The sentence should be making in the sequence and link with the sound of a previous sentence and also next sentence. The patterns of the English sound system make sense in form of how sounds are made,

particularly for vowels and  how sounds are perceived.  There is a connection and relation between English spelling system and English sound system. The relationship between sound and spelling is neither straightforward nor obvious.

Although it is obvious in an intellectual, cognitive sense that sounds and letters are not the similar  thing most educators working through sound system of English language will on occasion make errors through mistaking sounds for letters. The sound system of English language is easy understood, it becomes easier to make sense out of the spelling system and it becomes possible and attainable to make some sense out of the paragraphs educators and people have learning to spell, speaks and also learn the pronunciation of modern English language.

MAJOR PARTS OF SOUND SYSTEM:

There are two major types of sound are given below:

1- VOWELS

2- CONSUNANTS

1- VOWELS:

The letters in English (A,E,I,O,U) are called vowels. Sometimes Y is called the vowel. The letter Y can be a vowel in the words fly, cry, sky, dry, etc. The letter Y also a consonant in the words yam, yesterday, yoyo, yarn, etc. These five or six letters stand for about 20 vowel sounds in most English speech.

CLASSIFICATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS:

1- Monophthongs

2- Diphthongs

1- MONOPHTHONGS:

Monophthongs is a Greek language word which divide into two simple words where ‘mono’ is the first word which means ‘single’ or ‘one’ and the second word is ‘phthong’ whose meaning is ‘tone’ or ‘sound’. The words which spoken in one sound or only in one tone execute these are called Monophthongs. In vowels sounds there are 12 Monophthongs in English sound system. These vowel having pure vowel sounds which are unchanged. These types of vowels are also known as STABLE VOWELS.

2- DIPHTHONGS:

A tone produced by combining two vowels in a single syllable. In Diphthongs two adjacent sounds of vowels in the same syllable. The process of the movement of sound from first vowel to another this movement of sound is known as GLIDING. Thus Diphthongs vowels are also called gliding vowels and moving vowels.

EXAMPLES:

‘ei’

‘ai’

‘au’

‘oi’

‘ou’

2-CONSONANTS:

A consonant is a speech sound of pronounciation. The word consonant comes from latin which means “letter”. The word consonant is also used to refer a letter of an alphabets that denotes a consonant sound.In the English alphabets there are 21 consonants b,c,d,f,g,h,j,k,l,m,n,p,q,r,s,t,v,w,x,y and z.When we pronounced the consonants the tongue,lips and teeth are take part to move.Consonants are majority in English alphabets. Consonants are all the non-vowel sounds, or their corresponding letters: A, E, I, O, U and sometimes Y are not consonants.The International Phonetic Association(IPA) is a system invented by linguistics to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to attached each consonant. In consonants there are so many sounds but some sounds are voiced, like b, d, g and some are voiceless, like t, p, k are unvoiced consonants.

EXAMPLES:

• “Knowledge” in this word k is unvoiced.

• “Guard” in this word g & d both are voiced.

SYLLABLE:

A part,unit of pronounciation having with or without consonants or vowel sound forming the whole or a part of a word.when we define syllable it means in which parts we pronounce a word. When two (or more) vowels are next to each other, the number of syllables depends on the number of vowel sounds. Syllable is also the basic components in phonetics and phonology.

EXAMPLES:

• Cat is a syllable having only one syllable.

• Canada is also a syllable having three syllables.

TYPES OF SYLLABLE:

There are some types of syllable are given below:

1- Monosyllable

2- Disyllable

3- Trisyllable

4- Polysyllable

1- Monosyllable:

A word that consists of a single,one syllable is called a monosyllable and is also called monosyllabic.

EXAMPLES:

• Cap

• Dog

• Jump

These are the examples of monosyllable.

2- Disyllable:

A word that consists of two syllables is called a disyllable and is also said to be disyllabic.

EXAMPLES:

• Water ( Wa & ter )

• Candle ( Can & dle )

• Pencil ( Pen & cil )

These words are include as the examples of disyllable.

3- Trisyllable:

A word that consists of a three syllables is called a trisyllable and is also said to be trisyllabic.

EXAMPLES:

• Beautuful ( Beau, ti & ful )

• Potato ( Po, ta & to )

• Triangle (Tri, an & gle )

These words are include as the examples of trisyllable.

4- Polysyllable:

A word that consists of more than three syllables is called polysyllable.

EXAMPLES:

• Watermelon ( Wa, ter, me & lon )

• Avocado ( A, vo, ca & do )

• Independent ( In, de, pen & dent )

These are the examples of polysyllable.

FOOT:

Foot is defined as:

“A word contains two syllable these two syllables combines and are called foot”.

EXAMPLE:

• Banana ( Ba, na & na )

Banana contains three syllables in which two syllables combine and become a foot.

FOOTNOTE:

The definition of footnote is “A note that gives more logical and creative information and detailed about the single page of any topic at the bottom of the page”, so which reader easily understand the main idea of the page. It is used bottom of every page as a conclusion of page.

EXAMPLE:

• Main idea in the form of conclusion.

Prevention of β cell destruction in Diabetes using verapamil to decease TXNIP expression

Abstract
Introduction

Diabetes mellitus is a fast growing problem worldwide. It is a chronic metabolic disorder that continues to worsen over time. Current treatment focuses on lowering blood glucose levels but it does not prevent the progression of the disease. TXNIP has been identified as an important factor contributing to the β cell death associated with diabetes.

Materials and methods

Multiple search engines and databases were used to conduct a comprehensive literature search in order to identify, studies showing TXNIP as a possible factor contributing to pancreatic β cell destruction in diabetes

Results

Most of the studies conducted were pre-clinical, only one pre-clinical study focused on the possibility of using the calcium channel blocker – verapamil hydrochloride as an oral medication to target the expression of TXNIP, and hence possibility preventing apoptosis of the pancreatic β cells.

Discussion and conclusion

TXNIP was revealed to be induced by glucose and elevated in diabetes. Furthermore verapamil hydrochloride proved to be effective in decreasing blood glucose levels and TXNIP expression in diabetes induced mice. Suggesting oral verapamil as a novel therapy to treat diabetes – halting the progression of the disease, by promoting β cell survival and function.

1 INTRODUCTION

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder, characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia.(1) In diabetes mellitus there is either a defect in insulin synthesis and insulin secretion or the development of insulin resistance by receptors belonging to fat and muscle cells in the body that are responsible for lowering blood glucose levels(2). The two main types of diabetes are type 2 diabetes mellitus – formerly known as insulin independent diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) – formerly known as juvenile onset diabetes or insulin dependent diabetes(2).

Diabetes Mellitus is a fast growing problem globally. At present, as stated by the international diabetes federation, 1 in 11 adults are living with diabetes and it is estimated that by the year 2040 the prevalence of diabetes will increase to 1 in 10 adults – that is approximately 642 million individuals(3). T1DM accounts for 10% of the all cases of diabetes mellitus and usually occurs in the younger population with a peak age of around 14yrs(4).

Diabetes often results in ill health and premature death. It increases ones risk of developing many severe health complications associated with hyperglycaemia. Complications such as, cardiovascular disease, neuropathy, nephropathy, retinopathy, diabetic foot and many more(5).

Type 2 Diabetes mellitus, is identified primarily by insulin resistance, the pancreas continues to secrete insulin, sometimes at levels higher than normal, but the body develops resistance to its effects(2). Unlike in type 1 diabetes, onset of the disorder usually occurs after the age of 30 years, but in may ensue in children and adolescents as well(2, 6). Type 2 diabetes mellitus is most times caused by ill health, but genetic and environmental factors play a role in the development of this chronic disorder as well(2). Type 2 Diabetes is allocated into two subgroups; diabetes with obesity and diabetes without obesity. In diabetes without obesity there is resistance to insulin in addition to insulin deficiency and secretion(2).

The pathogenesis behind T1DM is loss of insulin producing pancreatic β- cells. It is an autoimmune disorder, where activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and macrophages penetrate pancreatic islets causing destruction of the β cells(2). Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the predisposition of this disorder(2).

The current treatment for T1DM involves external insulin injections and pens injected into subcutaneous tissue and insulin pumps that administers insulin through a catheter placed underneath the skin(7).

Insulin treatment can effectively lower blood glucose levels, however it fails to halt the process of pancreatic β cells destruction, which means that, the disease progressively worsens over time(8).

Recently, studies have shown that Thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP), a protein found in pancreatic β cells is one of the factors that contribute to the destruction of insulin producing cells and that high glucose levels exasperate the expression of TXNIP(8). Overexpression of TXNIP induces apoptosis of beta-cells and is essential for glucotoxicity induced beta-cell death, it does this by binding and inhibiting thioredoxin – a protein essential in controlling cellular redox state(9). Thus finding treatment that targets this protein on a genetic level could stop the destruction of these vital cells and halt the progression of the disease.

Verapamil hydrochloride an anti-hypertensive agent has been shown to successfully reduce the expression of TXNIP, therefore inhibiting β cell apoptosis (8, 10).

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

There is currently a lack of data on human studies that are focused on TXNIP as a possible therapeutic target for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, hence search conditions were not limited to only clinical trial data, but included pre-clinical trial data, review articles and other relevant publications. Multiple search engines and databases were used to conduct a comprehensive literature search in order to identify, studies showing TXNIP as a possible factor contributing to pancreatic β cell destruction in diabetes, as well as verapamil hydrochloride as a possible future oral therapeutic agent to treat diabetes. The literature search was conducted on but not limited to the following search engines and databases; google scholar, University of Pretoria database, PubMed, clinical key, clinical evidence, Medline and Scopus. Titles and abstracts including but not limited to, the terms and keys words; “Thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP)”, “Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus”, “Type 2 Diabetes mellitus”, “pancreatic β cells”, “apoptosis”, were searched. The search results were then additionally constricted to articles and publications that were written in the English language. Initially the search was limited to articles published in the last 5 years, but due to an insufficient amount of data, the year span was increased to articles published in the last 20 years. References from related publications were also reviewed.

3 RESULTS

Results obtained using the above mentioned search methods indicated no data on human studies conducted with TXNIP as the focus of the study to treat either type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Most of the studies conducted were pre-clinical, and only one pre-clinical study focused on the possibility of using the calcium channel blocker – verapamil hydrochloride as an oral medication to target the expression of TXNIP, and hence possibly preventing apoptosis of the pancreatic β cells. Most of the studies conducted, showed a link between glucotoxicity induced β cells death and thioredoxin interacting protein. The search did however identify a currently ongoing clinical trial testing the use of verapamil hydrochloride as adjunct therapy to treat type 1 diabetes, with the focus of the study directed towards using the antihypertensive agent to suppress the expression of TXNIP.

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

4.1 TXNIP EXPRESSION IS INDUCED BY GLUCOSE

In a human oligonucleotide microarray study, TXNIP was shown to be the strongest glucose induced gene and the expression of this protein was increased in diabetes(11). This was supported in a study conducted by Alexandra H. Minn and associates where expression of the TXNIP gene was also found to be prompted by glucose and raised in diabetes (12).

These findings were furthermore supported by those obtained in a preclinical study conducted by J Chen and associates on mice models of diabetes. In this study TXNIP was shown to be an important factor for glucotoxixity induced β cell death. Overexpression of TXNIP resulted in the activation of the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. Moreover this study revealed that the physiological levels of the β cell TXNIP protein were drastically raised in response to elevated glucose levels. This proposes that TXNIP may contribute to the advancement of diabetes and the associated continued destruction of pancreatic β cells (13).

4.2 VERAPAMIL HYDROCHLORIDE COULD PREVENT Β CELL APOPTOSIS

Verapamil hydrochloride a calcium channel blocker indicated for the treatment of ailments such as, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and migraine prophylaxis was shown to prevent β cell apoptosis and possibly reverse diabetes(10).In another pre- clinical study conducted by J Chen and associates, to test the efficacy of verapamil in treating diabetes, model mice were injected with diabetes model of multiple low dose streptozotocin (STZ), given verapamil in their drinking water and had their blood glucose levels monitored for 10 days. The control group mice became overtly diabetic reaching blood glucose levels above 400mg/dL, whilst mice treated with verapamil retained normal blood glucose levels of under 250mg/dL(8).

This protection was complemented by a drastic 80% decline in TXNIP levels in secluded islets of verapamil treated mice (8).

In addition to that, immunohistochemistry of the pancreas cross sections showed severely disrupted islets in the pancreas  of control mice and standard insulin encompassing islets were seen in verapamil treated mice(8).

To further address the assumption whether verapamil could reverse diabetes and not just avert it, model mice were induced with diabetes with multiple-low dose streptozocin injections, and only those that had become overtly diabetic after 15 days (blood glucose >250mg/dL) were selected, started on verapamil and followed for an added 10 days. All the experimental groups were severely diabetic, with blood glucose levels reaching 300mg/dL by day 15 and there was no significant difference between the groups. However, whilst diabetes continued to progress in the control mice group, with blood glucose levels reaching 350mg/dL, 25 days after being injected with streptozotocin, low-dose verapamil considerably lowered blood glucose levels to approximately 200mg/dL, indicating that verapamil can improve overt diabetes. Verapamil also led to a significant rise in serum insulin levels, and once again while severe islet destruction was seen in the pancreas of the control group mice, healthy insulin containing islets were seen in pancreas cross sections of mice treated with verapamil(8).

Additionally in the same study, Verapamil hydrochloride was shown to decrease the expression of TXNIP and inhibit β cell apoptosis. Interestingly, it was also shown that verapamil only reduced TXNIP expression when glucose levels were raised, which would permit for normalisation of TXNIP levels in diabetes but could avoid unwarranted effects caused by excessive decline of TXNIP below normal levels(8).

4.2.1 Mechanism of action of Verapamil hydrochloride in reducing TXNIP expression

In two pre-clinical studies conducted on mice, verapamil was shown to decrease the expression of TXNIP by inhibiting Carbohydrate responsive element binding protein (ChREBP) – a transcription factor – from binding onto the TXNIP promoter, therefor inhibiting the transcription of the TXNIP gene (9, 12). Under normal circumstances the gene would be translated to the TXNIP protein, which binds to thioredoxin, inhibiting its activity. Thioredoxin is an antioxidant and it protects cells such as pancreatic β cells from apoptosis, without it the result would be an increase in free radicals, resulting in a change in the cellular redox state. These studies proved that the downregulation of TXNIP could prevent the inhibition of thioredoxin, thus protecting cells from oxidative stress and ultimately apoptosis (8).

In conclusion, with the results obtained from pre-clinical studies, TXNIP was proven to be a critical factor contributing to the advancement of diabetes, as it induces pancreatic β cell apoptosis. Furthermore, the common anti-hypertensive verapamil hydrochloride has shown to be a promising possible oral therapeutic agent for the treatment and improvement of patients with diabetes. These results provide the basis for future human studies, using verapamil hydrochloride to enhance β cell survival and function. Leading to better therapies for patients with Diabetes mellitus.

Give an outline of how the American Dream is interpreted in texts 2,3 and 4: writing essay help

Give an outline of how the American Dream is interpreted in texts 2,3 and 4

Text 2:

In the text Arnold Schwarzenegger has written about the American Dream. Arnold Schwarzenegger tells that the American Dream, no matter what country you are from or who you are. You can be something great, and accomplish anything beyond your wildest imagination if you work hard. Arnold Schwarzenegger also says that you have to learn the English language to blend in and be a part of the American culture. You have to be a part of the community as well as participating in politic, and Arnold says that democracy is not a spectator sport. Arnold says that the final thing that completes the American dream, is giving back to the country and its citizens by doing work that will aid those who are not as fortunate as Arnold (Page 5, lll,33-35)

Text 3:

In this text is the American Dream explained in a materialistic perspective. The American Dream is explained as it is wounded, because of the materialistic things does not make you any happier and the economy is getting worse, because of high prices for energy (page 6, ll.1-2). But this makes a opening for a new American Dream, where people would give up money and other materialistic things in order to pursue the things that really should matter to the Americans, such as being with your family and their health, and providing a social security net that give a baseline of security.

Text 4:

Text 4 has more or less the same perspective as text 3, because it interprets the American Dream to be on the edge of extinction. David says that the ideal plan is that people can live comfortably and safe without worrying about their economy and that their parents’ children would be in a even better financial situation than them (page 8, ll, 21-22), but many Americans are struggling to pay their own loan. According to a survey, many people still believe and regardless of the fact that the economy is worsening and they are responsible for their own financial situation, because they believe that they will succeed or fail based on their own efforts.

2. Compare language, tone and style in texts 1 and 2

The vocabulary in text 1 is more formal compared to text 2, but it is not because it is poorly formulated, but it has the mark of spoken language instead of a written and formal language where the words are more advanced and used right to explain the true meaning, where text 2, is more informal and unclear. This type of language and formality shows that text 1 is thought through, then Arnold Schwarzenegger’s is, which is written more like a speech.

The tone in both text varies a lot, the tone in the first text is objective compared to text to which is more subjective. This is not a surprise especially if you look at the different sources. There is ‘The library of congress’ and on the other source ‘Arnold Schwarzenegger’. The library of Congress is Americas national library and Arnold Schwarzenegger is a former movie star and fitness icon and therefore it is natural that his statement is more subjective than the other one ‘The library of Congress’. The library in an objective style and tone so it becomes more reliable and formal, and it is also owned by the government.

3. Taking your starting point in one of the texts, argue for your own attitude to the American Dream

I have chosen text 1 as my starting point for my point of view to explain the American Dream. I have chosen this text because it has many different aspects of what the American Dream is which I can agree with. America has always been a place called the ‘promised land’ where a poor man or woman, no matter who he is or she is, what nation she or he is from, can make something of themselves if only she or he is capable and have the abilities they can have success. But this is not real, because it is represented as if America is a land that is flying on flowers and happiness and no one is judging you.

In the text it shows different aspects of what the American Dream is, and it also shows that the American Dream has progressed since the beginning. The American Dream started as a dream of social order, where you could get a higher social status which you deserved.

The text says is has become the ideal way of living a life of success and satisfying your life with other materialistic things. The American Dream can already be changing again with the new generation of young people searching a simple life.

How does the loss of biodiversity alter the stability of the ecosystem?

Issue

The issue in which I have chosen to research is Biodiversity of Conservation. Species diversity, genetic diversity, and and ecosystem diversity are the threes-groups that Biodiversity Conservation is made up of. Species diversity is home to the plants, animals, and microorganisms that occupy this earth. Genetic diversity is trying to preserve genes that allow species to evolve in response to diseases, predators, parasites, pollution, and climate change (Kearns, 2010). Finally, ecosystem diversity, there are a number of different ecosystems that different species call home such as, desert, wetlands, and rainforests. Also, ecosystem diversity includes, abiotic factors such as wind, rain, snow, and sun. Biodiversity Conservation is trying to protect and preserve all the different species on the planet from extinction. For 3.5 billion years Earth has been home to a number of different species, with that said 95% of those species are now excitant (Kearns, 2010).

Question

QUESTION When considering Biodiversity Conservation, the question that stands out is how does the loss of biodiversity alter the stability of the ecosystem? Also, what is being done to protect ecosystems from destruction? What overall effects does the loss of biodiversity have as a whole on the ecosystem?

Science Resources

My first source is titled: “Applied natural sciences.” (2017). Asheville, NC: Soomo Learning I chose this source as my first source because it provided me with the information that I would need to successfully complete my paper. It describes the natural sciences in a way that other sources I had looked up did not. This will be very helpful for my paper.

My second source is titled “What specific plant traits support ecosystem services such as pollination, bio-control and water quality protection in temperate climates?” I chose this as my second source because it is important to note how our ecosystem may positively or negatively affect or play a role in temperate climates.

My third source is titled “Habitat loss alters the architecture of plant—pollinator interaction networks.” I chose this source because habitat loss can have a negative effect on the number, abundance, and composition of species in plant–pollinator communities. Although we have a general understanding of the negative consequences of habitat loss for biodiversity, much less is known about the resulting effects on the pattern of interactions in mutualistic networks.This source will help me further explain why my the issue I chose is a problem.

Audience and Message

I would like to present my research and presentation on biodiversity conservation for a town hall meeting. By using a town hall meeting as my venue I would be able to reach the general public and government officials on my topic of biodiversity conservation. In order to engage my audience, I need to use simple language and scientific knowledge to help explain the issue. Also, by helping my audience rediscover a connection to nature in order to explain the importance of biodiversity conservation, that if the human species does not stop and start preserving the natural habitats we will end up depleting these free natural resources that we take for granted. According to Brian and Brian, “habitat loss remains a significant threat to biodiversity” (2013). By helping my audience understand the issue of biodiversity and giving them information based on scientific proof will help my audience make the choice that we can prevent further damage from happening. I would also, bring my audience attention toward something they would be familiar with pollination which stems from the plant pollinator relationship. This relationship is essential to not only human survival but other species as well. Pollination is essential for growing crops in which several species consume. According to Brian and Brian, the human attitude toward the plant pollinator relationship is that it’s free and will always be available (2013). With the destruction of the natural landscape and increased agriculture has strained pollinators.

Identify Principles

Habitat loss can have a negative effect in my research because it is a threat to environmental change we must become aware of the things that affect biodiversity and the stability of the communities that provide critical ecosystem functions and services.

Explain Principles

Habitat loss being a threat to environmental change is relevant to my issue and question because theory suggests that an increase in modularity with habitat loss will threaten community stability, which may contribute to an extinction debt in communities already affected by habitat loss.

Hypothesis and Natural Scientist

My hypothesis would be that biodiversity would drop as time increases if climate change goes unchecked. To test it, I would make a climate and biodiversity model that accounted for checked and unchecked for climate change. A comparison between the two outcomes should show if there is a pattern and what that pattern might be if it exists. Comparing the outcomes to existing models should show if there are any inaccuracies in the model or if there are any similarities to existing models. If the model aligns with others, the data from the resulting extinction rate can be considered useful.

Reference List

Applied natural sciences. (2017). Asheville, NC: Soomo Learning

Blowers C, Cunningham H, Wilcox A, Randall N. What specific plant traits support ecosystem services such as pollination, bio-control and water quality protection in temperate climates? A systematic map protocol.Environmental Evidence[serial online]. February 2017;6:1-8.

Brian J., S., & Brian D., I. (2013). Habitat loss alters the architecture of plant—pollinator interaction networks. Ecology, (12), 2688.