The purpose of this research paper is to discover why there were such racial and gender disparities among African American nurses during World War II. For example, why did the United States Army allow the recruitment of only 330 black nurses to attend to the nearly one million black soldiers? The Army chose not to enlist around the 25000 black nurses who also had the same necessary skills as white nurses, and could have greatly benefited the wounded and dying soldiers of any race. “Even as the United States entered World War II to protect freedom and democracy, discrimination against its racial minorities continued as the nation’s greatest dilemma.” Suffice it to say that the United States Government chose not to intervene in some decisions in the military branches. This biased ideal was evident not only within the Army, but the Navy, too. “Black women did not serve in the Navy Nurse Corps until late in World War II. In spite of the fact that the Navy stated that it would implement and maintain a non-discrimination program in the Navy Nurse Corps, only four black females were commissioned for service.” Yet, the military chose to forfeit not only the health, but the very lives of black and white soldiers alike, so as to keep racism and gender bias against these nurses alive.
Racial disparity among black nurses is not a rare phenomenon within the military, although throughout history, black women did have a periodic and often unofficial role in military, usually as nurses. Harriet Tubman and Susan King Taylor both served as volunteer nurses for the United States Army during the Civil War. But it wasn’t until World War II that they had their first opportunity to officially aid their country. This occurred after President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed a bill to create the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAC), which allowed women of all races to serve. Black women were also given the opportunity to advance to the rank of female officer. However, less than 3000 black women were admitted to serve as WACs in World War II, and could only serve overseas if a commander requested them in writing. Still, the army showed a striking variance between the 3000 black WOC’s, and the 330 black nurses. Might the reason be that the army thought it was much easier to segregate WOC’s, who were divided into units than black nurses, who may have been more difficult to regulate, as they might be compelled to render aid (singularly and not as a unit) to a jumbled mass of soldiers of any color during an emergency? In her book, Nursing Civil Rights: Gender and Race in the Army Nurse Corps, Charissa Threat point out that “In the early years war years, concerns about race mixing along with outright racism influenced military nursing policies just as they had shaped similar policies for the rest of the U.S. Armed Forces.”
Our writers can help you with any type of essay. For any subject
Order now
Although this logic of army segregation seems absurd, it certainly began to fail within the WOC units by World War II. Take for instance Charity Adams Earley, who became the first black female officer WAC. She believed she and her unit members were punished by the Red Cross Director because she was dating a white Red Cross staff member in London. In retaliation, the director leased a separate hotel for Earley and her subordinates. “We realize that your colored girls would be happier if they had a hotel all to themselves so we have leased a hotel from the British government, and we are in the process of renovating and furnishing it now.” After this comment, Earley did not choose to remain passive, and so she and her subordinates refused to stay in the segregated hotel, but not by being insubordinate. Rather, she and her unit chose to either take only day trips into London, stay with agreeable British families, or pay for their own hotels if they had to stay overnight. Although the Red Cross tried to segregate them in an unsegregated country, Earley and her unit found a solution that not only benefited them, but also allowed them to continue do their jobs effectively. Black nurses had to contend with not only racial disparities, but gender disparities as well. Indeed, gender disparities were problematic among both black and white nurses. Nurses have acted just as heroically towards the soldiers that they have risked their lives to save.
But as Valerie N. Wieskamp in her article The Nurses of Bataan: Liberating Wartime Heroes from Melodrama, points out “Dominant constructions of “heroism” follow a melodramatic frame that privileges masculine, individualistic actors who rescue the weak by eliminating or conquering the enemy.” Therefore, we tend to view heroism as gender specific, usually painting the male as savior and protector, especially during war, while downplaying the female role, and her “healing heroism” as Wieskamp calls it. An excellent example of this melodrama can be seen in a prisoner of war survivor and nurse during the Battle of Bataan, Captain Maude “Davy” Davidson. When given an opportunity to escape the Philippines, she bravely chose to stay and provide care to captured American soldiers, even as her health declined. After her release, physician military personnel recommended that she receive a Distinguished Service Medal (DSM). This was a medal that was awarded for valor and sacrifice, and many, including General Douglas MacArthur supported the request. But some disagreed, reasoning that her actions only deserved the Legion of Merit Award (LMA), for outstanding performance duties. As Wieskamp pointed out, “The position of nursing itself, of laboring to care for human life, was not deemed one of great responsibility in the patriarchal culture of the military.” As nursing was only considered a to be a female job, this act clearly shows the gender bias.
Although black nurses were having a difficult time enlisting in the army during World War II, they often found their services in higher demand within civilian life, and often worked as private or traveling nurses. Hospitals were still segregated, especially in the South, making work more difficult for black nurses to obtain. However, As the Army and Navy expanded the military with soldiers in the beginning of World War II, both started to recruit more white nurses and this caused a shortage of nurses for civilians. Ora Porter, was a private nurse for white patrons and was Warren County, Kentucky’s first black registered nurse. According to her nieces who were interviewed for William Motel’s book, Tales from Kentucky Nurses, Porter worked long hours for white patrons and stayed with the families of the patient for as long as she was needed. She often worked for white patrons because black patrons could not afford the help. Known to be an excellent typhoid nurse, she was in demand. Porter was never a hospital assigned nurse, but did accompany patients to the hospital. This shows how although black nurses had an extremely difficult time being admitted into the military and were also regulated to segregated hospitals, black nurses were readily accepted as private nurses and were often appreciated for their excellent nursing skills, especially with typhoid, which was often common at that time. It helps to show that although black nurses had a difficult time finding jobs in the hospital and military environment, they found ways to earn a good living as traveling or private nurses. Singular families readily accepted them, but as a country, did not.
The refusal by the army to enlist more black nurses, proved to be detrimental to white soldiers and especially black soldiers, because it caused a nursing shortage. To more accurately understand how harmful the shortage was to the soldiers, the ratio was more than triple the soldier for every black nurse, “By late 1944 there were eight million men in the army, of whom seven hundred thousand were African American. Yet of the nearly 44,000 Army nurses, only 330 were African American. This meant that for every white nurse, there were 166 white soldiers, but for every black nurse, there were 2,126 black soldiers” The few black nurses who were allowed to serve were also confined to specific areas through segregation or were required to look after German POW’s who were perfectly healthy, further diminishing their role as nurses. Prudence Burns Burrell, was one of the few black nurses allowed to join the army in World War II. She, and fourteen other black nurses made up an all-black nursing unit which was sent to Australia to serve in the southwest Pacific. Burrel describes a particular incident in Diane Burke Fessler’s book, No Time for Fear, concerning the mistreatment towards her unit by a fellow serviceman and how the Australians took up for them. “There were embarrassing occasions because of segregation.
A white lieutenant colonel made a very loud statement to a group of Australians who had us as guests at the zoo, that he resented our being served before him at the restaurant because where he came from, “niggers” were not allowed into the whited facilities. They told him to wait or leave.” Although the black community was acutely aware of shortages, the white community, especially the wives and family members of white soldiers, understood the harmful effect segregating black nurses was having on the men who risked their lives overseas. “It was reported that wounded Americans received inadequate care, while black nurses were assigned to help German POWs.” This especially became apparent when the nursing shortage became critical enough that a nursing draft of women was considered by the War Department and a bill was drawn up. But the war ended before a bill to draft women reached the Senate, and it was therefore withdrawn.
Sex Education In Public School
Sex education is a subject that has been taught in and out of schools all throughout history. It is a sensitive subject that continues to change over the years. Sex education has always been a very controversial topic in society and this will, sadly always be the case. The very important subject of sexual education is associated with countless opinions and demands for change in both schools and the public in general. Sex education has molded the minds of youth and it continues to shape the way we as a society view sex and all that comes along with it. The history, religious studies, and educational aspects of sexual education programs has had a great impact on our society for better and for worst.
Social Sciences: History
Sex education is a subject that was first introduced all the way back in 1912. The National Education Association began to introduce sexual education training programs. Ultimately, it was the superintend of a Chicago public school that was the first to introduce a sexual education program into school. The subject was first introduced in response to such a high rate of prostitution in the local Chicago area. However, the sexual education program did not last long. After just one year, due to several angry local Catholic leaders, the program was discontinued (The History of Sexual Education, Pardini, 2019). This did not stop sexual education programs for good. Along came the late 1900s and World War I brought resulted in a second wave of sex education. The war caused a very large spike in unprotected sex and STIs. This would eventually lead to a demand for more sexual education programs.
Our writers can help you with any type of essay. For any subject
Order now
Throughout the 1920s, between twenty and forty percent of U.S. public schools were teaching some kind of sexual education (Sex Education In The United States, 1835 Through Today, Millstein, 2015). The high rise of sex education in schools was occurring with the hopes of putting an end to STIs. Fast forward about 40 years to the early 1960s and, although it was still very controversial, sex education was being taught in public schools all throughout America. The primary outraged audience was religious groups and some of their biggest uprisings actually, unfortunately, resulted in state and local governments shutting down certain sexual education programs. Fast forward again to the 1980s and the devastating AIDS outbreak occurs. This called for an immediate demand in sexual education programs all across America. This was done for the primary reason to encourage safe sex or abstinence to prevent STIs. Being diagnosed with HIV in that time period was basically a death sentence and people needed to be educated to help prevent this (History of Sex Education in the U.S., 2016, pg. 11). There were certain areas in the U.S. where young people who were being taught abstinence only methods. This method actually resulted in a much higher teen pregnancy rate. This was due to a lack of knowledge about safe sex. However, 10 years later, the 1990s did ended up resulting in record low teen pregnancy rates. Still, the U.S. was and still is amongst the highest countries of teenage pregnancies.
By the time the 1990s had ended, sexual education programs were at an all-time high. America had mad huge amounts of progress. For one, it was mandatory that every state include AIDS education in school. Sexual education programs had grown, and the teen birth rate was as low as it had ever been. During the 2000s it was George W. Bush and Barrack Obama who had the biggest influence on sexual education programs. Bush encourage an abstinence only method in the early 2000s. This method was not very sufficient and once Obama was elected in 2008, he pushed for a K-12 Sex Education Program. By 2009 Obama had managed to eliminate all funds previously devoted to abstinence education and created his own, much more efficient, sexual education program (A History of Sex Education in the United States Since 1900, Huber and Firmin, pf 42, 2014).
Applied Sciences: Education
Nowadays, in 2019, sex education programs in schools vary across America. It is now mandatory for every school to have some sort of sexual education program. A lot of these programs are efficient and effective but, unfortunately, there are several areas across the U.S. that have very poor sexual education programs. America is now notoriously known for having a poor sexual education system. Just look at the rise in STIs over the years due to a lack of sexual knowledge. America’s STI rate is currently at an all-time high. The poor sexual education programs that exist throughout the U.S. is easily to blame for this. The poor sex education that young people receive result in a higher amount of STIs, more teen pregnancies, and an all-around lack of sexual knowledge. Although, it is mandatory that every state have some sort of sexual education program in their schools, this does not mean they are efficient. Schools have gotten away with poor sexual education programs and even have been known to teach false information. Many people (both students and adults) believe that there needs to be some kind of change in the way the system handles sexual education in schools. There is currently a rise of STIs amongst teenagers and young adults. Recent statistics say that by the time a person is 25, there is a one in two chance that he or she will have had an STI (American Sexual Health Associate, Statistics, 2016). This could easily be traced back to poor knowledge of STIs which is the result of too many children obtaining information from a flawed sexual education program.
Schools do not give out enough information that is necessary for students to know how to have safe sex. There are some sexual education programs (mostly in middle schools) that just say “wear condom” or “don’t have sex”. This is just setting up children for some future major problems. The lack of information being taught in schools today is what leads to infections being spread and more unwanted pregnancies. Another serious problem with sexual education in school is, the programs are not being acknowledged as much as it should. Most parents are pro sex ed and believe that there should be much better sexual education programs in schools. However, schools put almost all their focus on the typical subjects like math, history, and english. This is not to say these subjects are not important but do educators really believe students will be using calculus in the future more than they will be sexually active. With so much focus on other subjects and not enough on sexual education, young adults can grow up confused and make poor decisions that can very easily ruin their lives at a young age. Whether it is getting pregnant too young, getting someone else pregnant, or getting a very serious STI, teens that lack knowledge of sex are prone to make decisions that will negatively impact their lives.
Diversity: Religious Studies
Religious studies have always been a factor that has conflicted with sexual education programs. Religious groups have always fought about sex and sexual education. Due to certain beliefs, religious groups with often times protest sexual education programs which will result in a lack of sexual knowledge. Some religious groups are so powerful that they have actually forced to put an end to sexual education programs across the country. This is just for the selfish reason of pushing their religious beliefs on to other people. By doing this, they are setting young people up for a lack of sexual knowledge. When religion fights to stop sexual education, it will often times make young men and women insecure and embarrassed of their sexual desires that are completely natural (New Catholic World, Haughton and Rosemary p.12). By bashing sex and sexual education programs, religious activists are just asking for kids to rebel and they will do so without the proper knowledge, which can result in serious consequences from not being safe.
Reflection
My perspective on sexual education programs did not change at all throughout my research. I was well aware that there are mediocre sex ed programs in schools and the public does not acknowledge it enough either. I took the classes and they were just as bad, if not worst as they are today. Young adults are shielded from sex because so much of the public sees it as some sort of crime when, in reality, it is a totally natural thing that is done by everyone. For schools to not teach students and for the public to shield young adults from sexual education programs is not only irresponsible but dangerous as well. Lack of sexual education is what has been causing unwanted pregnancies, STIs, and more for over 80 years. Its simple, sex is natural, and it must be taught and done safely. For anything or anyone to get in the way of this is heinous.
Conclusion
In conclusion, sex needs to be talked about, taught, and done safely. It is unacceptable for any school, state, or society to have anything less than a perfect and well taught sexual education program. This is not to say that every sexual education program is flawed. There are several states that deal with sexual education perfectly. However, it is not acceptable for a single are in America to have a flawed sexual education system. It is our human nature to have sex, both for reproduction and pleasure. That being said, it is only right that we know as much about sex as possible so it can be done safely.
