AIDS first emerged as a major global issue in 1981. At this time, there were no viable treatments and the disease itself, as well as the way it spread, was highly misunderstood. AIDS has affected and continues to affect many countries worldwide, including the US, South Africa, and India. While treatment has greatly improved over the years, especially in developed countries, and life expectancy has drastically increased, there is still no cure and millions live with this chronic condition. The differing strengths of the economies greatly affect the availability of treatment, awareness of the disease, and knowledge of ways to prevent it throughout the three countries..
The first cases of AIDS in the United States emerged in 1981 (Dandona). At this time, nothing was known about the disease. People did not know how it spread, and it was widely believed that it affected only homophobic people, earning it the name “gay cancer” (Christensen). No treatment options were available and because no one knew the way in which it spread and many people were very cautious, some even avoiding shaking hands for fear that they would be infected. Many health care workers refused to care for patients with AIDS, fearing that they would become infected. At first, there was not enough support for the disease and therefore not enough funding for scientists to successfully research it, partly because many assumed only gay people could be affected. Congress would not dedicate any funds towards research of the disease until 1983, two years after it first emerged. Gradually, awareness increased, and with it money for research. In 1984, three years after the initial outbreak, Dr. Robert Gallo finally found the retrovirus that causes AIDS. In 1987, the first antiretroviral drug was approved by the FDA to treat AIDS (A Timeline of HIV and AIDS).
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Today, in the United States, almost everyone has heard of AIDS and knows what it is. Due to this increased awareness, people are better able to protect themselves from getting the disease. Furthermore, many people who are diagnosed quickly receive treatment. However, there are still many racial disparities when it comes to HIV. HIV is much more prevalent in those who are African American or Hispanic than it is in those who are white. Gay people are also more affected than their straight counterparts. According to the CDC, in 2016 76% of the people who were diagnosed with HIV were connected to a place where they could receive medical care within one month of their diagnosis (HIV/AIDS).The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation says, “while many people with HIV are diagnosed (86%), far fewer receive medical care (63%), and fewer still are virally suppressed (51%)” (The HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the United States…). Unfortunately, the stigma around the virus prevents many people from obtaining treatment and being properly educated on how to prevent the virus. Part of the reason so many people who are diagnosed have access to good treatment is because of the strong economy that the United States has. This allows them to allocate more money towards awareness and treatment of AIDS than other countries that have weaker economies. In 2019, the US Government will spend $34.8 billion on AIDS, which will be used both globally and domestically (U.S. Federal Funding for HIV/AIDS: Trends Over Time). This money enables many people who otherwise would not be able to afford treatment to receive the treatment they need.
It was not until 1986 that the first case of AIDS in India was reported. Until 2004, the Government of India focused its efforts on preventing the spread of the disease rather than the treatment of those already infected. It was not until 2007 that free ARV drugs began being distributed by the government (Jain). Today the HIV epidemic in India constitutes the third largest epidemic in the world. This is mainly due to the fact that they have such a large population, as only 0.2% of adults have the disease (HIV and AIDS in India). The large population also makes it very difficult to get an accurate measurement of the number of people living with HIV or AIDS, as well as the number of people who have died because of it (Jha). India has been making a great effort to educate the population about HIV and actions they should take to prevent it. Some of the most high-risk groups in India include Female Sex Workers (known as FSWs), transgender people, injecting drug users, gay men, and truckers (Sharma). While the percentage of people in these groups who have gotten HIV has decreased due to government intervention efforts targeting these groups, they still remain high (Dandona). Unfortunately, only 32% of men and 22% of women aged 15-24 knew how they could prevent HIV. A program called NACP-IV hopes to lower the number of new HIV infections by 50% by focusing on making more people aware of the disease and how it can be prevented (HIV and AIDS in India).
The percentage of people who have HIV and are being treated for it is only 56% and only 79% of people who have AIDS are aware that they have it (HIV and AIDS in India). The amount of people being treated in India is less than that of the United States. Unfortunately, sex workers and gay men are highly stigmatized groups in India. Sometimes, this stigma and discrimination affects the health care they recieve. People in these groups have reported having been refused treatment and pregnant women have reported being denied admittance to hospitals for delivery. One gay man said “Some of the doctors, when we approach them for treatment, if they know that we are [kothis] they don’t touch us and go away from us, ordering the [security staff] to send us out” (Reducing HIV Risk Behaviors…). This discrimination likely plays a large role in the lower percent of people with HIV engaging in treatment. Since 2017, India has been using a policy called “test and treat”. This ensures that anyone diagnosed with HIV is eligible to be treated. Even though money is no longer a major obstacle for many people with HIV, not everyone has access to clinics, making it difficult for them to obtain treatment (HIV and AIDS in India).
India is currently undergoing a period of development, with the hope of becoming a high middle-income country by 2030. While the amount of people living in extreme poverty has dropped drastically, about 13.4%, or 176 million people, continue to live in poverty. Like other countries, India has been increasing their domestic spending on HIV, therefore requiring less international aid (The World Bank In India). They now pay for 80% of their National HIV Program (Funding for HIV and AIDS). However, because there are so many poor people, many of them do not have access to information about AIDS and remain uneducated about the virus.
AIDS first appeared in South Africa in 1982. Until 1994, the government did not do much to contain it. It was not until 1989 that heterosexual population began being diagnosed with HIV, and soon after that, the number of heterosexuals diagnosed with HIV exceeded the number of homosexuals with the disease (Abdool Karim). Today, the HIV epidemic in Africa is the largest in the world. As a result of this, South Africa’s treatment program consists of 20% of people being treated with antiretroviral therapy, making it the largest in the world. Like in India, the rates of HIV are highest among sex workers and gay men (South Africa). HIV is also very stigmatized in South Africa and people often do not talk about it with others (Baker). Due to this, many people do not get tested for it and therefore do not know if they have it (HIV/Aids in South Africa). This is something that Sithole-Spong, a woman living with HIV in South Africa, feels needs to change in order to decrease the rate of HIV diagnoses, saying “That is how we will reduce new HIV infections because then the HIV-positive people will not feel a need to hide it. They will use protection, they will be more aware of themselves, and they will be more confident”.
Unfortunately, while South Africa’s treatment program is very large, the health care system is still not properly equipped to deal with the epidemic (Abdool Karim). Access to ARVs has greatly increased. In 2000, only the wealthiest people could afford treatment. Today, treatment is much more affordable, but the HIV virus is fully suppressed in only about a quarter of the people who have the disease. Furthermore, only half of the people who have AIDS or HIV are being treated. The government only provides treatment for people who have damaged immune systems, there are many people who do not know that they have the virus, and many people start treatment but then stop (Cohen). The South African health system is struggling to deal with the influx of new patients, many of whom are young and normally would not have needed additional health services (Abdool Karim).
While treatment for AIDS has greatly improved in South Africa, the country still has a long way to go. As is also the case in many other countries, they must get rid of the stigmas surrounding AIDS before they can adequately educate the population on the prevention and treatment of the virus, as well as the importance of getting tested. Furthermore, the health care system must begin providing care for everyone and ensuring more people who begin treatment remain in it. It is especially important to encourage people to continue treatment because once the disease is fully suppressed it will not be transmitted to others (Viral Suppression for HIV Treatment…). This will help prevent more people from becoming infected. By 2020, South Africa hopes to reach their 90-90-90 goal, which is “to have 90% of infected people aware of their status, 90% of known positives start ARVs, and 90% of that group drive the amount of virus in their bloodstream down to undetectable levels” (Cohen). South Africa already receives $300 million from other countries. In 2019, South Africa will be adding an additional $65 million to the $1.2 billion that they already spend each year on AIDS (Cohen).
South Africa has a strong economy. According to the World Bank, their economy is upper-middle income. Unfortunately, one out of four people are unemployed and the gap between the rich and the poor is substantial and only increasing (The South African Economy). This large wealth gap makes it difficult to reach all of the people and educate them about ways to prevent and treat the disease. The amount of people with the virus on treatment is 68%, which is more the India but less than the US (HIV and AIDS in South Africa).
While the US, India, and South Africa have all made big strides in the prevention and treatment of AIDS, each country still has a ways to go. The stigma surrounding the disease in all three countries significantly impacts the amount of people being treated for the disease, as well as the amount of people remaining on treatment. Decreasing the stigmas will also allow those who have the disease to talk to others about it and educate them on preventative measures they can take. The differing economies of these countries impacts the availability of treatment as well as knowledge of the disease, and therefore influences the percentage of those who have AIDS who are aware of their diagnosis and who are in treatment. The wealth disparity between the upper and lower class, especially in South Africa and India, also affects treatment and knowledge of the virus.
Relationship And Gender And Sexual Harassment
Abstract
This study was about sexual harassment, and the impact of gendered perception. More closely Perpetrators’ relationship with the victim on their perception of sexual harassment. A case study was discussed on the basis of which the whole study was conducted. The data collection method for this study was survey questionnaire, in which people were asked to give views about their perception regarding sexual harassment and which act of perpetrators is considered sexual harassment.
It was predicted that females were more sensitive to sexual harassment and perceived smaller acts as sexual harassment as compared to men. A perpetrator’s status impacts significantly on people’s perception to consider the act as sexual harassment. In conclusion, females were more prone to sexual harassment due to their increase sensitivity to any act of their relationships or any stranger. The hypothesis of this study was established, and the status of the perpetrators was considered essential. At the end of the study, limitations and future recommendations were given to upcoming research to expand their area of examination and use different techniques to evaluate the difference between current and previous situations related to the issue.
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Introduction
Sexual harassment has become a widespread and common recurring problem that is observable at a domestic level as well as in employment settings and educational institutions. Domestic sexual harassment is also seen in society however; it is less common than the occurrence of sexual harassment at the workplace and educational institutions, these incidents are more widespread. The statistics portrayed by Statista (2017), in the year 2017 approximately 42 percent of the women were found to be sexually harassed according to their perception as shown in the graph given below.
A major concern has been discussed by Rubin and Borgers (1990) that approximately 70 percent of women around the world have experienced some form of sexual harassment. However, they do not report this issue to the police or other concerned authorities.
Previous Studies
In Marks and Nelson (1993) study they have provided evidence that people’s perception is different about sexual harassment on the basis of gender bias. People consider the sexual harassing action that is started by a woman as no harassment or less harassing as compared to the same act if done by a man (Settles et al., 2014).
In addition to this finding, they found that gender bias also impacts the perception of sexual harassment as women state an action done by a man to be in the category of pure sexual harassment while men have a different perception. Men may consider that there is no offensive sexual harassment that has been categorized by females as sexual harassment (Marks and Nelson, 1993).
As per the study of Kanekar and Dhir (1993), the difference in the relationship between the perpetrator and the harassed, and the gender have a major influence on perceiving an activity as sexually offensive. The gender basis, however, can be moderated by harassment type and status of the person who initiated the sexual harassment.
In his study conducted on the similar topic, Ekore (2012) has also found a significant variation in men and women’s perception related to sexual harassment. The study conducted statistical analysis for portraying this relationship and impact. The results of statistical analysis proved that women who participated in the study considered even little acts of frankness as sexual harassment. But, according to results of Ekore (2012), male participants did not find those activities as sexual harassment.
Research Gap
A number of studies have sought out after getting the reasons and explanations for sexual harassment and determined how these incidents could be controlled. However, there is a gap in studies exploring whether an act can be considered sexual harassment. The difference in the perception of the victims has been deteriorating the statistics and facts on a number of sexual harassment events around the globe.
In psychology, it is an approved fact that attitude and behavior/perception of people towards an act is the main reason for believing an act to be negative or positive. The gap exists in the literature because when researchers intend to suggest the mitigating measures of such harassment, it is necessary to focus whether the act is sexual harassment. This study will bridge this gap and evaluate the difference between the perception of people regarding sexual harassment.
The case study of Alice a university student in a popular University in the United States. There are three levels of relationships with three different men; her uncle, friend, and a stranger. Alice was offered by these three men to go on a date and in return, they will be help her get a higher grade in her exams. Alice was offended by this offer by all three men and filed a complaint against them to the authorities. The committee wanted to ascertain if this was an act of harassment or Alice was exaggerating the situation.
To reach the findings of this study, a positivism, and realism philosophy was used. The research strategy helps the study to collect relevant data on the basis of nature of data required. Quantitative research strategy was used as the study was aimed at providing a statistical basis for the perception-based theory. To collect the data, survey research design was used. The survey questionnaire had three set of questions, in which the first question was demographic information in which the gender of the participants was asked.
In the second set of questions, the participants were asked about their relationship with the perpetrators as this affected their emotions towards the perception of sexual harassment. In the last set, the participants were asked if there were any influences of the above-mentioned factors on their perception that Alice was sexually harassed or not. After drafting this questionnaire, it was sent to 150 people through E-mail and social media. 120 responses were collected successfully. The data was entered into SPSS and different statistical tests including reliability tested i.e. Cronbach’s Alpha, regression analysis and correlation analysis were conducted. The results were interpreted and compared with the previous studies on alike topics.
The population of interest is based on a group of 150 people which were randomly selected. In the study, an artificial case was discussed, and the respondents responded according to the case. For example, what were their feelings about Alice’s case? The study is based on the case study, the control group responded. The requirement of the study analyzed gender-based reviews on sexual harassment, both genders were involved in the study.
All the voluntaries who wanted to respond to the questionnaire were included in the sample size. The age group is above 18 and both genders were included in the study. Their education, ethnicity, and demographics were not considered because it was needed to evaluate the social issue in a broad area. The people were motivated to participate because they realized the harsh reality of this issue in society. They have received course credit because they gave their valuable perspective to make this study valid and reliable.
The sample was asked, what was their perceptions regarding Alice’s perpetrators (Uncle, Friend, and Stranger) act. Their responses were explained by the graphical representation given below. In the case of the Uncle, 50 females out of 85 thought that it was sexual harassment and 15 out 35 male thought the same. Females are more prone to sexual harassment because they are more sensitive about this issue.
In the case of the friend, 29 females out of 85 considered it to be sexual harassment and 5 out 35 males believed the same. A classmate or friend is a well-known person which is why people believe their intentions are known and not considered sexual harassment.
Cronbach’s Alpha is a measure used to evaluate the reliability of the variables selected in the research work. Reliability test and this measure convey that the researcher can either use variables in further proceedings or not. Standard value of the Cronbach’s Alpha is more than 0.6 or exactly 0.6. The value for Gender of Perception is 0.78, which means the variable is reliable.
Cronbach’s Alpha is a measure to evaluate the reliability of the variables selected in the research work. The reliability test and this measure convey that either researcher can use variables in further proceedings or not. The standard value of the Cronbach’s Alpha is more than 0.6 or exactly 0.6. The value for Perception of Sexual Harassment is 0.72, which means the variable is reliable.
In this given table, the value of the constant is 3.992 which represents that when the independent variable is zero, then 3.992 would be the average value of the dependent variable. The Beta for the Gender of Participants is 0.342 which depicts that when gender switch from male to female or female to male there will be change. The perception of participants about sexual harassment by 0.342 times. The significance value which is also shown in the correlational analysis, the value is 0.0125 which is also less than 0.05 represents that there is a strong relationship between perception of participants and gender of participants.
In this given table, the value of the constant is 3.992 which represents that when independent variables are zero, then 3.992 would be the average value of the dependent variable. The Beta for the perpetrators’ relationship with the victim is 0.399 which depicts that the relationship with perpetrators will change the perception of participants about sexual harassment by 0.399 times. The significance value which is also shown in the correlational analysis, the value is 0.019 which is also less than 0.05, represents that there is a strong relationship between perception of participants and perpetrators’ relationship with the victim.
Discussion
It is predicted that females are more sensitive to sexual harassment and perceive the little acts as sexual harassment as compared to men while a perpetrator’s status impacts significantly on people’s perception to consider the act as sexual harassment. The analysis from the discussion concludes that there are numerous aspects which differ within the context of sexual harassment as evaluated by the different genders; male and female. In the following discussion, the response of Alice will also be reflected in the light of her changing perception of the sexual harassment faced by her uncle John, a stranger and a friend/classmate.
The initial concept of the following discussion is that there is a vast difference in perception regarding such an event in the response to the sexual harassment conducted. It is reported through multiple research statistics that men and women have a totally different view in comparison in response to a sexual harassment incident which will be evaluated through the case reflection of Alice. Another area of consideration is the relationship which is involved in the sexual harassment process, and the extent to which one could respond to a known person than a complete stranger.
It is also true that the current social status of an individual contributes highly towards the kind of response given over a sexual harassment event. Through the findings of Tata (1993), it was concluded that individuals from different hierarchical levels responded differently towards a sexual harassment. Some take it lightly as a matter of routine life, while, some take it serious where legal jurisdictions are involved, which is also supposedly the right way to deal with such case. It has also been identified through the study reports of (Settle, et al., 2014) and (Rotundo et al. 2001), that women respond aggressively towards any event, harassment or a non-harassment caused by men, as a matter of nature. Compared to the reaction of a man, who considers it as a misunderstanding the first time.
For a more realistic approach towards a conclusion, the case of Alice was evaluated. It was a hypothetically generated case involving the above-discussed relations. Talking about an uncle of Alice, who tries to hug, kiss or touch Alice anywhere, even if he has the desire towards sexual consent, but being a formal relation, it wouldn’t be considered harassment, it would be taken as affection. However, if the same consent is repeated by a stranger, Alice would shout or report to her parents or ultimately the police (Vijayasiri, 2008). Furthermore, the response of Alice would quiet be different as when the same event is repeated by a classmate.
Knowing them would cause Alice to have a trust in him, and, if the event is taken negatively, he will be stopped from whatever he tries to do, but, if positive, it will be labeled as love. However, the different responses make it confusing and difficult to reach towards a favorable conclusion. Despite the discussion, reflecting the same situation on a man would give similar results under every relation. A first touch would be considered a mistake, where consecutive touches would lead to a mutual discussion situation where no fuss would be created, and no third party will be involved (Polce-Lynch, Myers, Kliewer and Kilmartin, 2001).
Thus, the conclusion made represented, when the victim is not in a formal relationship with the harasser, even a dining date with a stranger is predicted to be a sort of harassment. A common justification which can be reached through detailed study reports that women are more sensitive to many of the problems they face in the environment and are more likely to face cases of being sexually harassed.
The study is based on quantitative data and survey questionnaire technique is used to collect the data. The researcher should have used an extensive approach such as interviews and involved previous studies thoroughly to analyze the change in current and previous conditions of this social issue to compare the difference and analyze what more changes are required to make the context of sexual harassment. Additionally, randomly selected data is reliable but specifically selected people can give more authentic results such as psychologist and people who face this situation in their real life. Hence, these are the limitations of this study.
Future Recommendation
The future researcher should focus on experiments and use different techniques to analyze this social issue. Moreover, they should compare the previous situations and current situations of the sexual harassment by investigating specific environment, for example, they can choose a workplace, schools, and colleges to analyze this phenomenon.
