Transracial adoption is defined as “the joining of racially different parents and children together in adoptive families” (Lee, 2003). In the United States, most transracial adoptions involve the placement of a non-white child into a white family, and the placement of black children into white families has been the most common type of transracial adoption. There are two types of transracial adoption, domestic and international. One of the earliest examples of domestic transracial adoption was the Indian Adoption Project. This project was designed to remove Indian children from their families on reservation’s in an effort to assimilate them into mainstream society (Lee, 2003). Soon following this initiative other programs started to follow suit for orphaned African American Children. These types of programs, however, were met with resistance from the racial minority communities (Lee, 2003). The National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW) argued that transracial adoption was a form of race and “cultural genocide” and they passed a resolution that called for an end of transracial adoption. (Lee, 2003).
International transracial adoption in the US reflects a “convergence of social and political factors at home and abroad” (Lee, 2003). Wars, poverty, lack of social welfare, and social disruptions in other countries have played a large part in providing international children for overseas adoption (Lee, 2003). Both international and domestic adoption is not without controversy. Because of this transracial adoption raises a set of complex issues and questions in adoption practice and policy. While the federal Multi-Ethnic Placement Act (MEPA) makes it illegal to prevent an adoption based solely on the race of the child or adoptive parents, transracial adoption has its opponents as well as its supporters. A number of people question whether it is in the best interests of children of color to allow them to be adopted by white parents (Lee, 2003). This subject has been a persistent debate among adoption specialist, legal advocates, mental health professionals, and civil rights advocates in this country for a long time (Griffith & Bergeron, 2006). This has been so despite cumulative research indicating that transracial adoptees can thrive and develop into confident adults with strong senses of identity and self-esteem (Griffith & Bergeron, 2006). Critics of transracial adoption believe that children and their potential adoptive parents should be of the same race and ethnic background. This essay will go over the different components of identity and mental health and how these two ideas are reflected in the transracial adoption debate.
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The main question that identity asks is, “Who are you?” Identity relates to our basic values that dictate the choices that we make (Heshmat, 2014). Whether it’s our relationships or our careers, these choices reflect who we are and what we value (Heshmat, 2014). Sometimes these values may not represent who we really are, and it may end up creating an unfulfilling life (Heshmat, 2014). Lack of a coherent sense of identity leads to uncertainty about who we want to be or do in this life. Identities are not chosen per se, but rather they are internalized by the values of our parents, environment or culture that we grow up in (Heshmat, 2014). Identity is made up of many different components ranging from the physical, experiential to the emotional and cultural.
One of the main goals that all parents should focus on regardless of race is the development of the child’s Identity. The best way to achieve this goal is to have children grow up in families who match their ethnicity. According to this ideology, ethnically Asian children should be raised in Asian families, black children in black families, and Latino children in Latino families. Otherwise, they are at risk of developing a confused sense of identity (Hollingsworth, 1999). The cultural competence of adoptees in their culture of birth is developed through their participation in cultural activities: learning the language, participating in holidays, in meals where the traditional food of the country of birth is served, developing awareness of traditions, listening to music and seeing films from that country, and becoming conscious of one’s physical resemblance to people of the same ethnic and cultural group (Harf et al., 2015). By living with a different race family, the adopted children are believed to develop an identity crisis and struggle to preserve their cultural heritage and are prevented from developing survival skills necessary to deal with common social issues such as discrimination and racism (Hollingsworth, 1999). Research shows that adoptees that have not learned to cope with prejudice and discrimination are unable to manage racism in a healthy manner which leads to low self-esteem and negative racial identity (Butler-Sweet, 2011).
When the ethnicity, culture, and religion of the adopters and child are similar it is said to be a good fit, or compatible and this is what most adoption agencies strive for when matching children to their future parents. This obviously doesn’t occur in every case, in fact, the ethnicity, culture and or religion of the adopters and child in some cases can be very different. The priority here is the ensure that the child would be brought up by their adoptive parents with a clear sense of identity. In transracial placements, the fostering of a positive racial identity may be more complex and challenging to achieve, which can result in the adopted child reaching adulthood and feeling unsure about their identity (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012).
Focusing on an identity that broadly reflects the child’s ethnicity highlights the importance of developing a positive black, Asian, or Latino identity of a child as they grow up (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). Proponents of transracial adoption know the difficulties related to transracial adoption and conclude that, while these adoptees are slightly slower to develop racial awareness, they do eventually develop a secure ethnic identity (Butler-Sweet, 2011). Children can learn about their cultural identity from different sources, it doesn’t always have to be from their parents. Even if it had to be from parents, one of the most important criteria for matching when it comes to transracial adoption was that the prospective adopters had the ethnic, religious and cultural sensitivity to bring up their adopted children (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). This idea ensures that as the child grows up, they have the necessary support to develop a positive transracial identity which enhances the development of resilience to racism and discrimination in society.
Transracial adoptions are marked by observable physical difference between parents and children, and the lack of physical resemblance is a central element of the life-long process of adoption and as well as our identity (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). For both the child and parents, the similar appearance may enable a child adopted into a family of similar ethnicity to be seen by outsiders to ‘fit in’ (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). Children are more likely to have positive identity outcomes if the people they grow up with share physical similarities that help them identify with the families with whom they live with (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). Emphasis on resemblance by adoptive parents may, however, detract from placing the adopted child’s needs at the center. The idea of adoption should be about meeting a child’s needs, not a substitute birth child who physically resembles the adoptive parents’ children (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). Nonetheless, acknowledging the importance of resemblance, does raise the issue of invisibility vs visibility children (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). A child adopted into the same ethnicity will have the psychological and emotion security because they do not visibly or physically present a difference when it comes to their family members or those in their community (Wainwright & Ridley, 2012). However, a child that isn’t raised into a same-race family will often struggle with a sense of “being different” from those around them, acknowledging that they look different from their family and community members. These physical differences may have adverse effects on the adoptees due to the increased chance of discrimination.
Discrimination is defined as negative behavior toward a group or its members simply because of membership in that group (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). Studies show that transracial adoptees raised by same-race parents are less likely to be stressed from discrimination due to the protective nature that racial socialization has (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). On the other hand, as members of a racial minority group growing up in white families, transracial adoptees not only have to face the unique struggle connected to race but also managing experiences of discrimination (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). This chronic risk for discrimination in transracial adoptees being raised by white parents may be complicated by a lack of racial socialization, which promotes racial-ethnic pride and resiliency (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). Instead, transracial adoptees are often more exposed to white cultural orientations with inadequate socialization which leads to dealing with discrimination from their peers and community (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). This process is often challenging in transracial adoptive families because the parents do not have extensive knowledge of the adopted child’s culture (DeBerry, Scarr & Weinberg, 1996). When done the right way, racial socialization promotes culturally relevant habits and values that children will eventually need to use to adapt and assimilate into their new society (DeBerry, Scarr & Weinberg, 1996). When white parents struggle to provide the necessary tools to combat discrimination and racism in the community, transracially adopted youth may be particularly vulnerable to physiological distress (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013).
The frequency with which the adopted children experienced racism was strongly related to their level of stress. It has been well established that the persistent presence of direct and indirect discrimination takes a psychological toll on individuals (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). Although there is a link between the frequency of discrimination and stress, this link can be modified by the behaviors of the adopted children’s parents (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). Children who experienced high levels of racism or discrimination found that the experience to be less stressful when their parents had worked on promoting their cultural pride and prepared them for dealing with racism as they grew up (Leslie, Smith, Hrapczynski & Riley, 2013). On the other hand, children’s whose parents that didn’t provide the necessary education tended to have higher levels of stress.
Higher levels of stress experienced from a racist event were also associated with poorer mental health outcomes (Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone & Zimmerman, 2003). These outcomes highlight a special link between racial discrimination and mental health. Growing research suggests that children that experience discriminatory events can have adverse mental health consequences as they develop into adults (Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone & Zimmerman, 2003). In recent years, there has been a growing body of literature on the relationship between racial discrimination and mental health with transracially adopted individuals (Presseau, DeBlaere & Luu, 2019). However, the research is still relatively new and is in short supply. Few of the studies found that discrimination was significantly and positively associated with internalizing and externalizing problems (anxiety and cheating) (Presseau, DeBlaere & Luu, 2019). Similarly, perceived discrimination had a significant association with depression among adult transracial adoptees (Presseau, DeBlaere & Luu, 2019). Such findings demonstrate a consistent link between racial discrimination and psychological distress, as well as elevated mental health disorders among racial minority individuals (Presseau, DeBlaere & Luu, 2019). Rather than allowing these children’s racial identity to suffer, opponents of transracial adoption recommend that the children wait in foster care or other such facilities until a same-race parent is willing to adopt them (Swize, 2002).
There is a mismatch in the number of minority children awaiting adoption and the number of the same race parents interested in adopting. There is a disproportionately high number of minority children waiting to be adopted (Swize, 2002). This causes the children’s adoption to be postponed waiting for a racial match to be found. There are not a lot of minorities looking to adopt but there are plenty of white parents looking forward to adoption. Supporters believe that this delay into an adoptive home may be detrimental to the child’s social-emotional and cognitive development (Swize, 2002). As a result, post-institutionalized children may suffer from severe delays and difficulties after being adopted in their new families (Juffer et al., 2011). Most of these adoptees are referred to mental health services more often than nonadopted children. Many often experience maternal separation, psychological deprivation, neglect, abuse and malnutrition in orphanages or poor families before adoptive placement (Juffer, & van IJzendoorn, 2005). Adopting these kids provides a healthier environment and these children are more likely to handle their mental health issues better (Swize, 2002). A child’s wellbeing drastically increases the earlier they become part of a permanent and stable environment. In fact, adoption usually offers improved medical, physical, education and phycological opportunities for these children. With these new opportunities research has documented children’s recovery and these adopted children greatly benefit from adoptive placement. They show catch-up growth in all domains of development, outperforming the children still in institutional care (Juffer et al., 2011).
In conclusion, transracial adoption is the legal adoption of a child of a different race or ethnic group by a family of a different race or ethnic group. The most common transracial adoption in the United States is that of a black child with white parents. This type of adoption is the most obvious form of adoption because of the often-observable race-related phenotypical differences between parents and their children. Transracial adoption is a highly controversial topic that asks many questions regarding mental health consequences for transracial adoptees, and the parents’ role in overcoming racial differences to facilitate positive racial socialization and identity. Interracial adoption evokes intense debate between those who consider transracial placements positive for children and society and those who consider them harmful to the minority children and the community.
One of the most vocal opponents of trans racial adoption includes the National Association of Black Social Workers who believe that black children should be placed only with black families. They believe that minority groups should belong physically, psychologically and culturally in that same minority group in order to achieve a positive identity and racial socialization. By reaching racial socialization these children are better able to adapt and cope with discrimination and racism that minority groups face in their community. Where socialization is important supporters of transracial adoption believe that by modifying the parent’s behaviors and encouraging them to teach their children their culture will make the process of belonging in society easier. Therefore, resulting in decreased feelings of stress and physiological distress which leads to a decrease in mental health. On the other hand, opponents believe that mental health issues are more prevalent due to the traumatic history of the children, and transracial parents don’t know how to properly deal with this type of situation. Instead, these children should stay in foster homes or institutional facilities until a same-race family wants to adopt. That way the family will have the generational knowledge of how to provide and teach the child. There are many ideologies and components to this debate and every question asks the question, what is the best way protecting the well-being of the adopted children.
Reference
- Butler-Sweet, C. (2011). “A Healthy Black Identity” Transracial Adoption, Middle-Class Families, and Racial Socialization. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 42(2), 193–212. https://doi-org.ezp2.lib.umn.edu/10.3138/jcfs.42.2.193
- DeBerry, K., Scarr, S., & Weinberg, R. (1996). Family Racial Socialization and Ecological Competence: Longitudinal Assessments of African-American Transracial Adoptees. Child Development, 67(5), 2375-2399. doi:10.2307/1131629
- Griffith, E., Bergeron, R. (2006). Cultural stereotypes die hard: The case of transracial adoption. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 34(3), 303-314.
- Heshmat, S. (2014). Basics of Identity. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/science-choice/201412/basics-identity
Hollingsworth, L. D. (1999). Symbolic Interactionism, African American Families, and the Transracial Adoption Controversy. Social Work, 44(5), 443-453. doi:10.1093/sw/44.5.443
- Juffer, F., Palacios, J., Le Mare, L., Sonuga-Barke, E., Tieman, W., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., . . . Verhulst, F. (2011). Development of adopted children with histories of early adversity. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(4), 31-61. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezp2.lib.umn.edu/stable/41408756
- Juffer F, van IJzendoorn M.H. (2005). Behavior problems and mental health referrals of international adoptees: A meta-analysis. JAMA., 293(20), 2501–2515. doi:10.1001/jama.293.20.2501
- Lee R. M. (2003). The Transracial Adoption Paradox: History, Research, and Counseling Implications of Cultural Socialization. The Counseling psychologist, 31(6), 711–744. doi:10.1177/0011000003258087
- [bookmark: _Hlk7686769]Leslie, L., Smith, J., Hrapczynski, K., & Riley, D. (2013). Racial Socialization in Transracial Adoptive Families: Does It Help Adolescents Deal With Discrimination Stress? Family Relations,62(1), 72-81. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezp2.lib.umn.edu/stable/23326027
- Presseau, C., DeBlaere, C., & Luu, L. P. (2019). Discrimination and mental health in adult transracial adoptees: Can parents foster preparedness? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(2), 192-200. http://dx.doi.org.ezp2.lib.umn.edu/10.1037/ort0000385
Sellers, R., Caldwell, C., Schmeelk-Cone, K., & Zimmerman, M. (2003). Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination, Perceived Stress, and Psychological Distress among African American Young Adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 302-317. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezp2.lib.umn.edu/stable/1519781
Art Of The Crusader Period
The art created during the Crusades shows the changes that were implemented, as well as the concepts and styles that were kept from the early Byzantine Era. These changes can be seen within the styles, imagery, and icons that were created during this time. Although the Crusades brought about many changes in leadership and religion the one thing that remained constant was the creation of art. One image or icon that has been used in numerous ways for centuries is Madonna and child. This image can be seen throughout the thousand years of the Byzantine Era and well beyond. Although the icon itself has not changed the way it was created and the style in which it was done has changed throughout time.
“The First Crusade broadly consisted of two expeditions. The so-called People’s Crusade seems to have consisted of an array of peasants, some townsfolk, and a mixture of brigands, ruffians and vagabonds, but also, it should be noted, a significant sprinkling of knights, who were led by Peter the Hermit. This was followed shortly after by another sizeable force of fighting men, knights and foot soldiers whose leaders were some of the most important magnates in Europe.” These four armies from different Western European regions, were led by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Godfrey of Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois and Bohemond of Taranto. They all left Byzantium in August of 1096. These groups of men arrived in Constantinople where they were met by Alexious who ruled over any land gained by the Turks. After joining Alexious the crusaders and their allies attacked Nicea, which surrendered in late June of 1097. After the fall of Nicea the Crusaders and Byzantine leaders march toward Jerusalem, claiming it in its entirety by mid-July of 1099. The rulers during the first Crusades were Christian and enforced this religion where ever they went.
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The Crusaders maintained their rule up until 1130 when Muslim forces began gaining power in their holy war against the Christians. By 1147 the second crusade began, and the Crusaders and Byzantine leaders began losing power and land to the Turks and Muslims. By 1187 the third crusade began with the Crusaders of Jerusalem trying to capture Egypt and but faced defeat by generals such as Shirkuh and Saladin. By 1191 King Richard I of England defeated Saladin and recaptured much of the land. This allowed for him to reestablish Christian control over much of the region. By 1192 Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty which reestablished the kingdom of Jerusalem and brought an end to the Third Crusade.
The Fourth Crusade took place in 1198 when Pope Innocent III felt the power struggle within and between Byzantine and Europe was becoming to great. This concern drove the newest crusade to divert their mission and bring down the Byzantine emperor Alexius III, replacing him with his nephew Alexius IV, who became the new emperor in 1203. Alexious IV was strangled in a palace coup in 1204 after immense resistance to submitting the Byzantine church to Rome. In response to the emperor’s death the crusaders declared war on Constantinople. The end of the fourth crusade came with the fall of Constantinople. Through the end of the 13th century the crusaders aimed to combat any all enemies of the Christian faith.
The fifth crusade was started by Pope Innocent III before he died in 1216. The crusaders attempted to attack Egypt from both sea and land but were forced to surrender to Muslim defenders in 1221. The Sixth Crusade led to the peaceful transfer of Jerusalem to Crusader control, this treaty expired a decade later and Jerusalem was once again taken back by the Muslims. Louis IX of France spent 1248-1254 organizing a crusade against Egypt, this Seventh Crusade was a failure. By 1260 the Crusaders were struggling to keep power and a new dynasty known as the Mamluks began to form. The Mamluks took over much of the land and fought Louis IX in what was considered to be the Eighth Crusade. Louis died and Mumluks continued their conquest. In 1271 Edward I of England began the Ninth Crusade but accomplished very little, this crusade is considered to be the last significant crusade to the Holy Land. By 1291 the last remaining Crusader city fell marking the end of the Crusades.
Through all of these battles and changes of power art was still made and cultures continued to flourish. The Crusades allowed for new cultures and religion to take hold and mix with what was already known. Christianity and Western civilization extended its reaches and the Roman Catholic Church increased its wealth. The Christians used their religious history to justify colonialism, warfare and terrorism as well as the taking over of cultures and lifestyles. Though this seems devastating it made is so that a stronger collective cultural identity began to form throughout Europe. For those of the Islamic faith the Crusades were a brutal time where their faith and lives were put to the test. There was an increase in xenophobia and intolerance between not only Christians and Muslims but also between Christians and Jews and heretics and pagans. Though there was much devastation due to these wars there was also good that came from them. There was increase in international trade and an increase in the exchange of ideas and technology. In this paper some of that good will be discussed in terms of the art created during these times. Art tells a story of history and what life was like for those who came before us. One of the most well-known stories of this time is that of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Images of the two together date back well before the Crusades and well into that time period. In this paper images of Madonna and Child before and after the Crusades will be compared and contrasted for the similarities and differences that occurred during these times.
The image of Madonna and Child can be seen throughout the entirety of the Byzantine Era. This icon is redone and used over and over again, each time slightly different in style and form depending on when it was made and by whom it was created. One of the earliest remaining images of Madonna and Child is Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George. This panel painting was done on encaustic wood and is from the sixth or early seventh century, it was found in St. Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai, Egypt. This painting depicts the Virgin and Child with a solder saint on either side, Theodore to the left and St. George to the right. Above these two saints are two angels whose faces are turned upward as if looking to God, while the light in the middle falls upon the Virgin.
At first glance this piece seems flat and compressed but upon closer inspection one can see the spatial recession that is taking place. This painter used the classicizing style that was inherited from Rome. The faces and bodies within the piece are modeled and detailed. The bodies and heads tilt and pose in different angles. The skin and muscles are done with fine detail and show the ease at which the bodies have been created. One can see a shadow that is being created by the throne that the Virgin is sitting in towards the bottom, as well as folds in her dress which create the illusion of depth and space. At the top of the painting the architecture is also receding which helps to create and close off the space within the piece. This painting also brings in the idea of hierarchy with how the bodies are displayed. The angles are highest up and they are not touching the ground while the saints are below them, fully erect with one foot upon the ground and the other lifted as though they are in motion, the saints gaze is calm and direct, they are looking out ward as if viewing the audience. The angels gaze is upward towards God and they are painted in light colors and are slightly transparent giving them a holy or other worldly appearance. The Virgin sits upon a thrown with her feet above the ground, her gaze is to the side and away from the viewer. The way this composition is laid out shows a hierarchy in the way earth and heaven are seen. There is a suggestion of cosmos, of the world, of Earth and of “real” people. The heavenly aspect would be the angels, while earth would be the saints, Madonna and Christ would be in the middle of the two as both heavenly and worldly, while the audience who is looking upon the piece represent earth.
The image of Madonna and child can still be seen during the Crusades and well after. Two of the most famous pieces from this time are Virgin and Child Enthroned with Angels in Medallions (Mellon Madonna) c. 1260-1285 and Madonna and Child on a Curved Throne c. 1260-1280 . These images are considered to be some of the most important cultural images found in western Europe during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In both images Madonna sits upon a large thrown with Christ on her lap. Both are dressed in detailed flowing robes with many folds and highlights. The first image shows Madonna in purple and blue robes, which have a hood that shrouds her face. She sits upon an elaborate wooden throne with a rest beneath her feet. She holds the Christ child on her lap, he is dressed in a red and blue tunic and holds a scroll in his left hand while doing a blessing gesture with his right. The Christ child also has a halo surrounding his head. Above the two figures are two medallions each with an angel inside. The two angels can be seen from the torso up and have robes and halos on and are holding scepters. Both angels are looking down upon the two figures while Christ looks up at Madonna. Madonna is looking outward towards the audience, she uses her hand to gesture towards Christ, this gesture can be seen as Madonna indicating that Christ is the way. In Madonna’s lap Christ can be seen doing a blessing gesture towards the Madonna. The throne upon which they sit resembles an oversized, ornate chair.
The second image, although very similar to first still holds important differences. This image like the first, depicts virgin and child together upon a thrown but in this image the seat upon which they sit is different. The thrown is elaborate and ornate like the first but in this image, it is round, two-tiered and wraps around the virgin, while also taking up most of the background. Both virgin and child are draped in flowing robes with intricate folds and highlights, but the style and colors used are different than what is used in the first image. The virgin is draped in red and blue while the Christ child is dressed in salmon and blue. This particular image uses thin repeated lines to show highlights and detail. The Christ child holds a scroll in his left hand while supporting it on his lap and presents his right hand in a blessing gesture. Similar to the first image are the two medallions above the virgin’s head which contain images of two angles, both holding scepters and spheres in their hands. Another difference in this image besides the thrown is the halo surrounding the virgins head. This halo gives the virgin added meaning, it presents her as not only the mother of Christ but also as someone who heavenly and slightly more important than those around her.
When comparing the Madonna and child from before the Crusades to the ones that were created after the some of the differences are immediately apparent. The Crusades brought about a new combination of byzantine culture and expectation with new western ideas and styles. Stylistically the first Madonna and child are not as intricate and tend to look flatter than those that came after it. The two Madonna and child pieces from after the Crusades are much more detailed and have more highlights and shadows, allowing them to appear more three dimensional. These second pieces show colors that were introduced by the west along with hyper ornamentation of the thrones and new techniques like stippling. One of the most common arguments given as to why these to pieces are not considered to be solely byzantine is the way the colors are done. It may seem like a small thing to notice but because the colors were mixed instead of layered it becomes more obvious that these pieces were created at later time. These differences come from the change in style that occurred as the Crusades progressed. These changes in style tended to happen because of changes in culture and religion as different emperors and rulers took over different lands. Depending on who was ruling in that area would determine what artists were present at that time and what kind of art they were creating. Changes in religion meant that different aspects of each religious story became more or less important.
The Crusades lasted for over two hundred years and brought about destruction and pain to many people. Between assassinations, the rise and fall of multiple religions and the constant take over and loss of land it is safe to assume that change would happen. Shifts in culture, lifestyles, religion and religious practices all caused changes within the art that was created. One of the most prominent images and icons of the byzantine era was that of Madonna and child. This image was created for over one thousand years and continues to be created today. Madonna and child can be seen in many countries in a variety of styles and mediums and have held an important place in art history for centuries. These three pieces are an important part of both history and art and tell us a story of the past and how the changes society goes through changes the media created during that time.
